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104th Congress 1995–1997

Representative Eva Clayton (D-NC), Co-chair of the House Democratic Policy

Committee

Representative Barbara Cubin (R-WY), House Deputy Majority Whip

Representative Rosa DeLauro (D-CT), House Chief Deputy Minority Whip

Representative Tillie Fowler (R-FL), House Deputy Majority Whip

Representative Barbara Kennelly (D-CT), Vice Chair of the Democratic Caucus

Representative Nita Lowey (D-NY), Minority Whip At-Large

Representative Susan Molinari (R-NY), Vice Chair of the House Republican

Conference

Representative Barbara Vucanovich (R-NV), Secretary of the House Republican

Conference

103rd Congress 1993–1995

Representative Nancy L. Johnson (R-CT), Secretary of the Republican Conference

Representative Barbara Kennelly (D-CT), House Democratic Chief Deputy Whip

102nd Congress 1991–1993

Representative Barbara Kennelly (D-CT), House Democratic Chief Deputy Whip

100th Congress 1987–1989

Representative Lynn Martin (R-IL), Vice Chairman of the House Republican

Conference

Representative Mary Rose Oakar (D-OH), Vice Chair of the House Democratic

Caucus

99th Congress 1985–1987

Representative Lynn Martin (R-IL), Vice Chairman of the House Republican

Conference

Representative Mary Rose Oakar (D-OH), Secretary of the House Democratic

Caucus

98th Congress 1983–1985

Representative Geraldine Ferraro (D-NY), Secretary of the House Democratic

Caucus

97th Congress 1981–1983

Representative Shirley Chisholm (D-NY), Secretary of the House Democratic

Caucus

86th to 93rd Congresses 1959–1975

Representative Leonor K. Sullivan (D-MO), Secretary of the Democratic Caucus

83rd, 84th and 88th Congresses 1953–1957 and 1963–1965

Representative Edna F. Kelly (D-NY), Secretary of the Democratic Caucus

81st Congress 1949–1951

Representative Chase G. Woodhouse (D-CT), Secretary of the Democratic Caucus

Note: Additional information from Biographical Directory of the United States Congress

1774–1989, U.S. Government Printing Office, Women in the United States Congress,

Congressional Research Service and Congressional Women’s Websites.

Reprinted by permission.

Appendix: Facts and Statistics 839

Table A.4 Women Appointed to Cabinet Positions

Appointee Position Appointed By Dates

Frances Perkins Secretary of Labor F. D. Roosevelt (D) 1933–1945

Oveta Culp Hobby Secretary of Health,

Education, and

Welfare Eisenhower (R) 1953–1955

Carla Anderson Hills Secretary of Housing

and Urban

Development Ford (R) 1975–1977

Juanita A. Kreps Secretary of Commerce Carter (D) 1977–1979

Patricia R. Harris Secretary of Housing

and Urban

Development Carter (D) 1977–1979

Patricia R. Harris Secretary of Health

and Human Services Carter (D) 1979–1981

Shirley M. Hufstedler Secretary of Education Carter (D) 1979–1981

Jeane J. Kirkpatrick U.N. Ambassador

Reagan (R) 1981–1985

Margaret M. Heckler Secretary of Health

and Human Services Reagan (R) 1983–1985

Elizabeth Hanford Dole Secretary of

Transportation Reagan (R) 1983–1987

Ann Dore McLaughlin Secretary of Labor Reagan (R) 1987–1989

Elizabeth Hanford Dole Secretary of Labor Bush (R) 1989–1991

Carla Anderson Hills Special Trade

Representative

Bush (R) 1989–1993

Lynn Morley Martin Secretary of Labor Bush (R) 1991–1993

Barbara H. Franklin Secretary of Commerce Bush (R) 1992–1993

Madeleine K. Albright U. N. Ambassador

Clinton (D) 1993–1997

Hazel R. O’Leary Secretary of Energy Clinton (D) 1993–1997

Alice M. Rivlin Director, Office of

Management and

Budget Clinton (D) 1994–1996

Laura D’Andrea Tyson Chair, National

Economic Council

Clinton (D) 1995–1997

Carol M. Browner Administrator,

Environmenal

Protection Agency

Clinton (D) 1993–

Janet Reno Attorney General Clinton (D) 1993–

Donna E. Shalala Secretary of Health

and Human Services Clinton (D) 1993–

Madeleine K. Albright Secretary of State Clinton (D) 1997–

Aida Alvarez Administrator,

Small Business

Administration

Clinton (D) 1997–

840 Appendix: Facts and Statistics

Charlene Barshefsky U.S. Trade

Representative

Clinton (D) 1997–

Alexis Herman Secretary of Labor Clinton (D) 1997–

Janet Yellen Chair, Council of Clinton (D) 1997–

Economic Advisors

Notes:

Because each president defines cabinet-level differently, a combined figure for

cabinet and cabinet-level positions is unavailable.

The position of U.N. Ambassador was considered cabinet-level during the Reagan and

Clinton administrations.

The position of Special Trade Representative was considered cabinet-level during the

Bush Administration, as is the U.S. Trade Representative in the Clinton administration.

The position of Chair of the National Economic Council is a cabinet-level in the Clin-

ton administration.

The position of Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency is a cabinet-

level position in the Clinton administration.

The position of Administrator of the Small Business Administration is a cabinet-level

position in the Clinton administration.

Reprinted by permission.

Appendix: Facts and Statistics 841

842 Appendix: Facts and Statistics

Table A.5 Women in State Legislatures, 1895 to 1999

Year Number of Women Legislators Percentage of Total Legislators

1895 3 1.9

1897 6 2.7

1899 8 2.8

1901 1 0.3

1903 2 0.7

1905 0 0

1907 0 0

1909 2 0.6

1911 5 1.5

1913 11 1.9

1915 9 1.0

1917 12 1.1

1919 25 1.9

1921 39 1.0

1923 99 1.4

1925 141 1.9

1927 128 1.7

1929 150 2.0

1931 152 2.0

1933 136 1.8

1935 139 1.8

1937 147 2.0

1939 150 2.0

1941 154 2.1

1943 200 2.7

1945 236 3.2

1947 216 2.9

1949 220 2.9

1951 242 3.2

1953 299 4.0

1955 312 4.1

1957 317 4.2

1959 341 4.4

1961 325 4.2

1963 344 4.4

1965 377 4.8

1967 320 4.2

1969 315 4.1

1971 346 4.5

1973 444 5.9

1975 609 8.1

1977 703 9.3

1979 776 10.4

1981 912 12.2

1983 992 13.3

Appendix: Facts and Statistics 843

1985 1,101 14.8

1987 1,171 15.7

1989 1,268 17.0

1991 1,359 18.2

1993 1,527 20.6

1995 1,535 20.7

1997 1,605 21.6

1999 1,652 22.3

Note: Of the women state legislators currently serving, 248 (239D, 9R) or 15 percent are

women of color: 171 African American, 48 Latina, 17 Asian American, and 12 Native

American. Women of color constitute 3.4 percent of all state legislators.

Source: Cox, Women State and Territorial Legislators (1996); Center for the American

Woman and Politics, Eagleton Institute of Politics, Rutgers University.

844 Appendix: Facts and Statistics

Table A.6 Statewide Elective Executive Women, 1969–1999

Total Total Women Total Percent

Yea r Wom en

Party Breakdown

B,C

Positions Women

1999 89 45D, 41R, 1RP, 2NP 323 27.6

1998 82 34D, 45R, 3NP 323 25.4

1997 82

34D, 45R, 3NP 323 25.4

1996 80

E, F

33D, 44R, 3NP 324 25.6

1995 84 36D, 45R, 3NP 324 25.9

1994 73 40D, 30R, 2NP, 1I 324 22.5

1993 72

42D, 27R, 2NP, 1I 324 22.2

1992 60

35D, 22R, 2NP, 1I 324 18.5

1991 59

I, J, K

34D, 22R, 2NP, 1I 324 18.2

1990 47

34D, 11R, 2NP 323 14.6

1989 46

34D, 11R, 1NP 322 14.3

1988 41

N, O

32D, 9R 322 12.7

1987 45

P, Q , R

36D, 9R 323 13.9

1986 45

34D, 11R 323 13.9

1985 43 32D, 11R 323 13.3

1984 38

26D, 12R 323 11.8

1983 34 24D, 10R 324 10.5

1982 34

U, V

25D, 9R 324 10.5

1981 34

25D, 9R 324 10.5

1980 34

X, Y

26D, 7R, 1NP N/A N/A

1979 35

28D, 6R, 1NP 327 10.7

1978 32

AA,BB, CC

25D, 6R, 1NP N/A N/A

1977 33

25D, 7R, 1NP 333 9.9

1976 32 24D, 7R, 1NP N/A N/A

1975 33 25D, 7R, 1NP 337 9.8

1974 26 18D, 7R, 1NP N/A N/A

1973 26 18D, 7R, 1NP 342 7.6

1972 24 18D, 6R N/A N/A

1971 24 18D, 6R 343 7.0

1970 24 15D, 9R N/A N/A

1969 23

14D, 9R 346 6.6

Notes:

These figures do not include: officials in appointive state cabinet-level positions

(unless the appointment is to an elected position); officials elected to executive posts by

the legislature; members of the judicial branch; or elected members of university Boards

of Trustees or Boards of Education.

“NP” indicates an officeholder elected in a nonpartisan race; “I” indicates an independ-

ent; “RP” indicates Reform Party.

The Minnesota Democratic Farmer-Labor (DFL) Party is included in the Democratic

(D) figures; the Minnesota Independent Republican (IR) Party is included in the Repub-

lican (R) figures.

Includes Jane Dee Hull (R-AZ), elected as Secretary of State who became governor in

9/97 through constitutional succession; as well as Betsey Bayless (R-AZ) who Hull ap-

pointed as Secretary of State in 9/97, and Denise Bode (R-OK) who was appointed to the

Public Service Commission in 10/97. Does not include Gloria Tristani (D-NM), who re-

signed to take a post with the Federal Communications Commission in 11/97.

Appendix: Facts and Statistics 845

Does not include Frances Jones Mills (D-KY), who died in office 1/15/96 while serving as

State Treasurer.

Does not include Martha Whitehead (D-TX), who abolished her office of State Treasurer

10/20/96, thereby fulfilling a campaign promise.

Does not include Mary Sue Terry (D-VA), who resigned as Attorney General 1/28/93 to

run for governor, or Kay Bailey Hutchison (R-TX), who resigned as State Treasurer 6/14/93

after she won a special election to the U.S. Senate. Does include Martha Whitehead (D-

TX), who was appointed State Treasurer and took office 7/6/93; and Kim Robak (D-NE),

who was appointed Lieutenant Governor and took office on 10/4/93.

Does not include Lena Guerrero (D-TX), who resigned as Railroad Commissioner 9/25/92.

Includes Lena Guerrero (D-TX), who was appointed to the Railroad Commis

sion and

took office 1/23/91.

Includes Susan Loving (D-OK), who was appointed Attorney General and took office

6/21/91.

Does not include Mary Stallcup (D-AR), who was appointed Attorney General 1/1/91

and, who left office 1/14/91.

Includes Norma Paulus (NP-OR), who was appointed Superintendent of Public Instruc-

tion 10/1/90.

Includes Clarine Nardie Riddle (D-CT), who was appointed Attorney General and took

office 10/27/89.

Does not include Clarine Nardie Riddle (D-CT), who was appointed acting Attorney

General 12/22/88.

Includes Rose Mofford (D-AZ), who became Governor 4/5/88 following the impeach-

ment and conviction of Governor Evan Mecham (R). She had been serving as Secretary of

State when she became Governor by constitutional succession.

Includes Mary Landrieu (D-LA), who was elected State Treasurer in November 1987.Vot-

ers cast two ballots; one to finish an unexpired term for which she took office 11/30/87; the

other for her own four year term which began 3/14/88.

Does not include Mary Evelyn Parker (D-LA), who retired as State Treasurer 1/15/87.

Does not include Ruth Meiers (D-ND), who died in office 3/19/87 while serving as Lieu-

tenant Governor.

Includes M. K. Heidi Heitkamp (D-ND), who was appointed Tax Commissioner and took

office 2/2/86.

Includes Margaret Kelly (R-MO), who was appointed State Auditor and took office 5/30/84.

Does not include Barbara Kennelly (D-CT), who left her position as Secretary of State

1/12/82 to assume her seat in the U.S. House of Representatives.

Includes Maura Melley (D-CT), who was appointed Secretary of State and took office

1/29/82.

Includes Kay Orr (R-NE), who was appointed State Treasurer and took office 6/15/81.

Does not include Juanita McDaniel (D-AL), who resigned as Public Service Commis-

sioner 2/80.

Includes Mary Jane Odell (R-IA), who was appointed Secretary of State 11/3/80.

Does not include Paula Hawkins (R-FL), who resigned as Public Service Commissioner

3/21/79.

Does not include Elwill Shanahan (R-KS), who retired as Secretary of State 5/10/78.

Does not include Melba Till Allen (D-AL), who left office as State Treasurer 6/78.

Includes Annie Laurie Gunter (D-AL), who was appointed State Treasurer 6/78.

Includes Rose Mofford (D-AZ), who was appointed Secretary of State and took office

10/20/77.

Does not include Sarah Folsom (R-AZ), who died in office 6/11/69 while serving as Su-

perintendent of Public Instruction.

Reprinted by permission.

846 Appendix: Facts and Statistics

Fact Sheet 1 The Gender Gap

Voting Choices, Party Identification, and Presidential Performance Ratings

The “gender gap” refers to differences between women and men in political atti-

tudes and voting choices. Although the gender gap has historical roots, political

differences between women and men have increased in scope and shown greater

persistence in recent years. A gender gap has been apparent in voting behavior,

party identification, evaluations of performances of recent presidents, and atti-

tudes toward various public policy issues.

Voting Choices in Recent Presidential Elections

The 1996 presidential election was marked by an 11 point gender gap, the largest

ever recorded, with women favoring Bill Clinton and men preferring Bob Dole. In

1992, the gender gap was 4 points. In both 1996 and 1992, women were less likely

than men to vote for Ross Perot. All three presidential elections held during the

1980s showed notable gender gaps. In each of these elections, fewer women than

men voted for the victorious Republican candidate (by 6–9 percentage points).

Presidential Candidates Voter News Service*

Wo m e n M e n

1996

Bill Clinton 54% 43%

Bob Dole 38% 44%

Ross Perot 7% 10%

1992

Bill Clinton 45% 41%

George Bush 37% 38%

Ross Perot 17% 21%

*Voter News Service is the service which was known as Voter Research and Surveys

until 1993. It is referred to on this fact sheet by the newer name.

ABC News/

CBS News/

Washington Post New York Times NBC News

Wo m e n M e n Wo m e n M e n Wo m en M e n

1988

George Bush 50% 57% 50% 57% 51% 57%

Michael Dukakis 49% 42% 49% 41% 49% 43%

1984

Ronald Reagan 54% 62% 56% 62% 55% 64%

Walter Mondale 46% 38% 44% 37% 45% 36%

1980

Ronald Reagan 47% 53% 46% 54% 47% 56%

Jimmy Carter 42% 35% 45% 37% 45% 36%

John Anderson 9% 9% 7% 7% 8% 8%

Appendix: Facts and Statistics 847

Voting Choices in U.S. House Races

In recent elections, women more often than men have voted Democratic in U.S.

House races.

Voted for Democrat for U.S. House

Women Men Source

1996 53% 44% Voter News Service

1994 54% 43% Voter News Service

1992 55% 52% Voter News Service

1990 52% 48% CBS News/New York Times

1988 48% 45% CBS News/New York Times

1986 54% 51% CBS News/New York Times

1984 49% 45% CBS News/New York Times

1982 57% 54% CBS News/New York Times

Gender Gap a Factor in a Majority of Races

Elections in the 1990s show that the gender gap, which was evident throughout

the 1980s in races around the country at various levels of office, continues to be

a factor in a majority of races.

• In 1996, in 38 of the 49 races (78%) where Voter News Service (VNS) conducted

exit polls on election day, there were gender gaps of at least four percentage

points. There were gaps of this magnitude in 6 of 11 gubernatorial races, and in

three of four at-large House races studied by VNS. In all but one of the 38 races

with gender gaps, female voters were more supportive of Democratic candidates

than were male voters.

• In 1994, in 51, or 81% of the 63 races where Voter News Service conducted exit

polls on election day, there were gender gaps of at least four percentage points. In

49 of the 51 races with gender gaps, female voters were more supportive of the

Democratic candidates than were male voters. In one of the two exceptions (the

Ohio attorney general’s race), women voters supported a female Republican at a

greater rate than did male voters.

• Similarly in 1992, in 34, or 67% of the 51 races where Voter News Service con-

ducted exit polls on election day, there was a gender gap of at least four percent-

age points. In 30 of the 34 races, women voters supported Democratic candidates

in larger numbers than did male voters. In one of the four exceptions, women

voters supported a female Republican candidate at a greater rate than did male

voters.

• Likewise in 1990, in 43, or 61% of the 70 races where Voter News Service con-

ducted exit polls there was a gender gap of at least four percentage points. In all

but four of the 43 races with a gender gap, women voters supported the Demo-

cratic candidates in larger numbers than did male voters. In three of the four ex-

ceptions, women voters supported Republican women candidates at a greater rate

than did male voters.

Races with the Largest Gender Gaps

In 1996, the races with the largest gender gaps (over 12 percentage points) were

senatorial races; two were won by Democratic men and one by a Republican

woman. In the 1994 election, the races with the largest gender gaps (14 percentage

848 Appendix: Facts and Statistics

points in each case) were gubernatorial races with male candidates. In the 1992

and 1990 elections, the races with the largest gender gaps (14 to 16 percentage

points) tended to be those with Democratic women candidates.

Voter News Service

Women Men Results

1996

GA Senate Max Cleland (D) 56% 41% Won

Guy Miller (R) 40% 55% Lost

ME Senate John Brennan (D) 48% 39% Lost

Susan Collins (R) 43% 56% Won

SD Senate Tim Johnson (D) 57% 45% Won

Larry Pressler (R) 42% 54% Lost

1994

AR Governor Jim Guy Tucker (D) 66% 52% Won

Sheffield Nelson (R) 34% 48% Lost

KS Governor Jim Slattery (D) 43% 29% Lost

Bill Graves (R) 57% 71% Won

MI Governor Howard Wolpe (D) 46% 32% Lost

John Engler (R) 54% 68% Won

1992

CA Senate Barbara Boxer (D) 57% 43% Won

Bruce Herschensohn (R) 37% 51% Lost

CA Senate Dianne Feinstein (D) 64% 50% Won

John Seymour (R) 33% 46% Lost

OR Senate Les AuCoin (D) 56% 40% Lost

Bob Packwood (R) 44% 60% Won

1990

CA Governor Dianne Feinstein (D) 58% 42% Lost

Pete Wilson (R) 42% 58% Won

OR Governor Barbara Roberts (D) 56% 40% Won

Dave Frohnmayer (R) 29% 45% Lost

TX Governor Ann Richards (D) 59% 44% Won

Clayton Williams (R) 41% 56% Lost

Senate and Gubernatorial Races Where Women’s Votes

Provided the Margin of Victory

Below are U.S. Senate and gubernatorial winners from the past seven election cy-

cles where election day voter polls indicated that women provided the margin of

victory for winning candidates. In all but one of these races, women more often

than men voted for the Democratic candidate. (In the 1990 Connecticut guber-

natorial race, women favored the third party candidate.) In the races marked with

an asterisk, men’s votes were about evenly divided (within the margin of sam-

pling error), while the women voters showed a clear preference for the Demo-

cratic candidate.