Mona Baker & Gabriela Saldanha. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (2nd edition)

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available.Inordertoavoidprosecution,variousstrategiesoftranslationcould

be,andwere,employed.Onesuchstrategyinvolvedleavingthe‘offensive’

wordintheoriginallanguage(i.e.optingfornontranslation);anotherconsisted

ofusingparaphraseorinnuendotocommunicatethemessageindirectly

(Brownlie2007b).Attimes,CLASSICALTEXTSwhichhadgainedaesthetic

respectabilityhadtobecensored,oftenbythetranslatorhimorherself,in

ordertobemadeavailabletoawideraudience(Jones2001:164–6).

Censorshipdoesnotnecessarilyalwaysapplytoindividualtexts.Inthecontext

ofcensorship,thenameoftheauthorandthatofthetranslatorcangain

considerableimportance:inotherwords,institutionalcensorshipcanofficially

rejectatextnotonlybecauseofitscontentbutalsobecauseoftheauthor’s

profileorindeedthetranslator’sidentity.InFascistItaly,translationsbyauthors

suchasThomasMannandAndréGidewerebannedbecausetheywere

believedtobeJewish(Fabre1998).Similarly,entiregenresmaybesubjected

tocensorship.BothinFascistItalyandinNaziGermany,translationsof

detectivestories,forexample,werebannedasagenreaprioriduringthelast

yearsofthedictatorshipbecauseofthepopularitytheyhadgainedamong

readers.Thesestorieswerethoughttoconstituteavehicleforimportingperilous

andimmoralexamplesofantisocialbehaviour.

Importedcinemahasoftenbeensubjectedtovariousformsofcensorship

throughdubbingandsubtitling(Rabadán2000;Ballester2001;Vandaele2002;

GutiérrezLanza2002;seeAUDIOVISUALTRANSLATION).Whilereading

mightbeseenasaprivateact,screeningoccursinfrontofapurportedly

vulnerableandvisibleaudience(Jones2001:164–7).Creativecensorship,orat

timesthetranslator’sownselfcensorship,hasbeenappliedtosubtitledfilms,

twowellknownexamplesbeingtheLastTangoinParis(1972;Jonesand

Platt1991)andtherenownedJapanesefilmAiNoCorridabyŌshimaNagisa

(IntheRealmofSenses,1976).Althoughoncecensored(intheoriginalas

wellasinthesubtitledversions),bothfilmsarenowregardedasmasterpieces.

TheJapanesefilmwascensoredforobscenecontent,butitsmainpurposewas

toaddresstherepressivepoliticsof1930sJapan(Jones2001:797–812,817–

20).Bytargetingonlytheeroticcontentofthefilm,theinstitutionalcensorial

powerwasabletoset,albeitinacontradictoryfashion,theboundariesofthe

circulationofthefilmaswellasitsmodesofreception.Similarly,andinrelation

toanothergenre,until1968dramaticproductionsintheUKweresubjectto

approvalbytheLordChamberlain’soffice,whichdeterminedwhatplayscould

orcouldnotbeperformed(Krebs2007a,2007b;Walton2006,2007;see

DRAMA).

Institutionalcensorshipoftenoperatesmoreovertlyincontextsinwhichpolitical

freedomisseverelyconstrained.FascistItaly,NaziGermanyandFranco’s

Spainputintopracticeacensorialpreventiveapparatuswhichspecificallyand

selectivelytargetedthosetranslationswhichwereideologicallydestabilizing.In

thesecontexts,censorshipfunctionedasapreventivemeasurewhichworked

effectivelybecauseoftherelevantregimes’abilitytorecruitthepublishing

industryandbringitinlinewiththepoliticalorder.Translationswererarely

sequestrated,becausethepublishersthemselvespreemptedcensorshipby

guaranteeingtheiracceptability(Rundle2000;VanSteen2007).Here,as

elsewherewhencensorshipdoesnotinvolveacompleteban,translationsare

identifiedwitha‘stranger’whoneedstobepresentedinaparticularfashionin

ordertobecomepartofthediscourseofdominantinstitutionsandpolitical

leaders.Oneareaoftranslationwhichgenerallyseemstoattractthecensor’s

attentionunderdictatorshipsisthatofCHILDREN’SLITERATURE,dueto

theallegedvulnerabilityofitsreaders(Craig2001;ThomsonWohlgemuth

2007).Onthewhole,however,recentstudieshavedemonstratedthat

preventivecensorshipallowedagents(publishers,translators,authors)acertain

freedomofmanoeuvre,sothattheycouldoccasionallysucceedinhavingsome

potentiallysubversivetextspublished(Fabre1998;Sturge2004).

Inadditiontoinstitutionalcensorship,translatorscanalsofunctionasself

censors;inotherwords,theycanapplyaformofindividualcensorship.Self

censorshipcanassumeeitheraprivateorpublicsignificance,dependingonthe

circulationofthetranslationinthetargetculture.Sincetranslatingcaneasily

becomeapoliticalactofresistanceorofacquiescence,themainquestionto

addressiswhetherthiscensorialactisconsciousorunconscious,visible

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orinvisible.Philpotts(2007)discussesthetranslationsandadaptationsofradio

playsselectedbythecelebratedpostwarGermanwriterGünterEichto

broadcastonNationalSocialistradioin1930;theseoftenconsistedofthe

REWRITINGofpopularhistoricalandliterarymaterialtoserveaslightweight

entertainment.Philpottsdemonstrateshowinanticipatingthecensorialresponse

theauthortranslatordeniedhimselfhisfunctionasauthorandengagedinself

censorshipinordertoconformtotheregime’srestrictions(seealsofortheatre,

Krebs2007a).

Therelationshipbetweentranslationand(allformsof)censorshiphasoften

beensurprisinglyproductive(BoaseBeierandHolmann1998:1–17).The

constraintsimposedbycensorshiponindividualcreativitycanparadoxically

resultinfurtherproductionofknowledge,providedthereisadegreeofshared

mutualunderstandingamongcommunities(ÓCuilleanáin1999:31–44;

Tourniaire1999:71–80).Ultimately,censorshipactsagainstwhatliesinthat

spacebetweenacceptanceandrefusal:theambiguous,thecompositeand,

moreimportantly,whatdisturbsidentity,systemandorder.Thismeansthat

translationhasbeenandwillcontinuetobeafrequenttargetofcensorshipinits

variousforms,butthatitalsocontinuestofunctionasaspacefornegotiating,

andattimesevading,theseformsofcensorship.Italsoexplainsthegrowing

interestinstudyingtherelationshipbetweencensorshipandtranslation,as

evidencedintherangeofvolumesdedicatedtothethemesincethebeginningof

the21stcentury(Rabadán2000;Ballester2001;Craig2001;Merkle2002;

Sturge2004;Billiani2007a).

Seealso:

ADAPTATION;AUDIOVISUALTRANSLATION;CHILDREN’S

LITERATURE;COMICS;ETHICS;GENDERANDSEXUALITY;

IDEOLOGY;PSEUDOTRANSLATION;REWRITING.

Furtherreading

Perrin1969;Bourdieu1982;JonesandPlatt1991;Fabre1998;ÓCuilleanáin

1999;Tourniaire1999;Jongh2000;Rabadán2000;Rundle2000;Ballester

2001;Craig2001;Jones2001;Merkle2002;Vandaele2002;Sturge2004;

Billiani2007a,2007b.

FRANCESCABILLIANI

Children’sliterature

Translationforchildrenencompassessuchdiverseformsasthetoddler’sboard

book,theyoungadultnovelortheillustratedinformationtext,andrequiresan

understandingofbothdevelopmentalfactorsandtheworldofchildhood.

Hollindale’sdefinitionof‘childness’as‘thequalityofbeingachild–dynamic,

imaginative,experimental,interactiveandunstable’(1997:46)underpinsthefine

balanceofaffectivecontent,creativity,simplicityofexpressionandlinguistic

playfulnessthatcharacterizesuccessfulwriting,andthereforesuccessful

translation,fortheyoungestreaders.Attheotherendoftheagerange,novels

addressingthefragilityoftheadolescent’sselfimagedemanduptodate

informationonrapidlychangingyouthcultures.

Centraltoadiscussionoftranslationforchildrenistheadult–childdualitythat

raisesthequestionofexactlywhatcountsaschildren’sliterature:texts

intentionallywrittenforchildrenbyadults,textsaddressedtoadultsbutreadby

children,textsreadbybothchildrenandadults?Definitionsofchildren’s

literaturemayincludeanyoftheseinteractions,withtheadultpresencetakingon

manyguisesinchildren’sbooks,fromthespectreofthedidacticnarratorofthe

eighteenthcenturymoraltaletotheplayfulironicasidesintendedfortheadult

readingaloudtoachildinWinniethePooh.Translationmay,however,alter

thenatureoftheadult–childrelationshipimplicitinthesourcetext.Shavit’s

(1986)analysisofthetransferofbothRobinsonCrusoeandGulliver’s

Travelsfromtheadulttothechildren’sliterarycanonviatranslationpointsto

antecedentsofthemodernphenomenonof‘crossover’fiction,i.e.fictionthatis

readbyoraddressesreadersofallages(Beckett1999).Anotherexampleis

providedinO’Sullivan’s(2000)accountoftheremovalofthelayerofironyin

thefirstGermantranslationofA.A.Milne’sclassicstories,resultinginalossof

dualaddress.

Translatingimageandsound

Afurtherandfundamentaldifferencebetweentextsforadultsandchildrenisthe

historyof