Mona Baker & Gabriela Saldanha. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (2nd edition)

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atailofincreasinglysmallercircularbubblesareusedtorepresentthought(in

comics)orwhispereddialogue(inmanga).Evenwhenimagesareapparently

notmanipulated,theyare‘translated’byreadersaccordingtoculturespecific

visualconventions.TheprevailingnormforJapanesecomicspublishedin

translationnowseemstobetoretaintheoriginalrighttoleftreadingdirection,a

strategyfavouredbyfansofJapanesepopACG(animecomicsgames)

subculture.Notonlydoesthereadingofwordsconflictwiththereadingof

imagesinthiscase,buttheirinterpretationisalsofilteredthroughculturespecific

waysofreadingvisualsignssuchasthedirectionofmovementandthe

dispositionofbodilymassesinapanel(Barbieri2004).Whentranslatedmanga

areinsteadpublishedasmirrorimagestoconformtoWesternreadinghabits,

theyentailchangesinasymmetry(e.g.leftratherthanrighthandedness).The

roleplayedbythemangafansubcultureinorientingtranslationpracticesisalso

evidentinscanlation,whichconsistsinthescanning,translatinganddistributing

throughtheInternet,byandforcommunitiesoffans,offoreigncomicsthathave

notyetbeenofficiallypublished(FerrerSimó2005).

Whileconstrainedtranslationapproachesareoftenprescriptive,eitherexplicitly

orimplicitly,otherapproachesadoptamoredescriptivestance,complementing

linguisticwithculturalandsemioticanalysis.Kaindl(1999)proposesa

taxonomyofelementswhichmaybeusefullyadoptedintheanalysisofcomics

intranslation:typographicalsigns(fonttypeandsize,layout,format),pictorial

signs(colours,actionlines,vignettes,perspective),andlinguisticsigns(titles,

inscriptions,dialogues,onomatopoeias,narration).Allofthesemaybe

subjectedtodifferentSTRATEGIESof‘translation’,suchasreplacement,

subtraction,addition,retention,etc.Inasimilarvein,Celotti(2000,2008)

discussesanumberofstrategies(translation,nontranslation,footnotes,cultural

adaptation,etc.)whichareusedinrelationtothetranslationlociofcomics,

thesebeingthefourareascontainingverbalmessages:balloons,captions,titles

andparatext.Celottialsodescribestheinterplaybetweenvisualandverbal

messagesintranslatedcomics.Zanettin(2008a)suggeststhatthetranslationof

comicsmaybeusefullyinvestigatedwithinalocalizationframework,understood

initsbroadestsenseastheADAPTATIONandupdatingofvisualandverbal

signsforatargetlocale(seeLOCALIZATION).Inadditiontothetranslator

‘proper’,differentactorsareinvolvedintheprocess,andtheworkofthe

‘translator’isconsideredinrelationtothegeneralcontextandworkflow.If

translatedcomicsareunderstoodascommercialproductsandtextualartefacts

inwhich‘translation’inthesenseof‘replacementofstringsofnaturallanguage’

isonlyonecomponentoftheprocess,thepublicationofacomicintranslation

mayberegardedasaformofLOCALIZATION.

Seealso:

ADVERTISING;AUDIOVISUALTRANSLATION;CHILDREN’S

LITERATURE;GLOBALIZATION;LOCALIZATION.

Furtherreading

Zanettin1998;Kaindl1999;Celotti2000;Scatasta2002;Jüngst2004;Ferrer

Simó2005;Zanettin2008b.

FEDERICOZANETTIN

Commercialtranslation

Thequestionofclassifyingtranslationactivitybysubjectdomains,topics,

genres,texttypes,textfunctionsorothercriteriaisnotunproblematic.Some

theorists(e.g.Sager1994,1998)attempttogroupalltranslationactivitywhich

isnotofliteraryorreligioustextsintoacategorycalled‘industrial’or‘non

literary’translation.Theterm‘pragmatictranslation’wasintroducedby

Casagrande(1954:335)torefertotranslationwhere‘theemphasisisonthe

contentofthemessage’asopposedtotheliteraryoraestheticform,andthis

termnowappearstobeusedfrequentlytorefertononliterarytranslation,

particularlyinthecommercialsphere.

SCIENTIFICANDTECHNICALTRANSLATIONmaybedefinedin

relationtosubjectdomains(scienceandtechnology)whicharerecognizedby

classificationsystemssuchastheDeweyDecimalClassificationortheUniversal

DecimalClassification.However,commercialtranslation,

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financialtranslation,economictranslation,businesstranslationandother,similar

termsdonotcorrespondsoreadilytoexistingclassificationsofknowledge.

Thereisthusnoconsensusonhowtolabelordefinethistranslationactivity.The

termusedhereisoneofconvenience,intendedtocoverthetranslationofall

textsusedinbusinesscontexts,excludingtechnicalandlegaltexts.Itshouldbe

noted,inaddition,that‘commercialtranslation’issometimesusedtodesignate

translationservicesrenderedforpayment,asopposedto‘voluntarytranslation’;

thisdistinctionisnotpursuedhere.

Studiesofcommercialtranslation

Giventhedifficultyofclassifyingthistranslationactivityandthewiderangeof

texttypesitencompasses,itishardlysurprisingthattranslationstudiesasan

academicdisciplinehaspaidcommercialtranslationrelativelylittleattention.

However,itcanalsobearguedthatitisneglectedduetothehighesteemin

whichLITERARYtextsareheld,comparedwithgenresconsideredculturally

lessprestigiousandthereforeperceivedaslessworthyofstudy(seealsoAixelá

2004:33).

Withinstudiesofcommercialtranslation,themainfocusinrecentyearshasbeen

onactivitiesrelatedtotheGLOBALIZATIONoftradeingoodsandservices.

Thestimulationofdemandforproductsacrossbordersthrough

ADVERTISINGandthetranslationofadvertisingcampaignshasprovideda

richsourceofmaterialfortranslationscholars.Moststudies(e.g.Jettmarová

1997,1998;Chiaro2004;Smith2006)havefocusedontheSTRATEGIES

usedintranslatingadvertisingmaterialinparticularlinguisticandcultural

contexts.Someresearchers(e.g.Séguinot1995)havealsoexaminedtherange

ofcompetenciesorknowledge(businessandmarketing,legalframeworks,

culturalconventions,etc.)requiredbytranslatorsworkingoncommercialtexts.

Closelyconnectedtothetranslationofadvertisingmaterialisthephenomenon

oflanguagecontactandcodeswitchingincommercialtexts(seealso

MULTILINGUALISM).Recentworkonmultilingualdiscoursefocusesonthe

useofEnglishinnonAnglophoneadvertising.Forexample,Piller(2001,2003)

reportsashifttowardsmultilingualadvertisinginacorpusofGerman

advertisements,whichisattributedtotheperceivedstatusofEnglishasthe

languageofprogress.Similarly,Englishisusedtosignalprestigeandqualityin

theRussianmarket(Ustinova2006)andintheMexicancontext(Baumgardner

2006).InMartin’s(2006)studyofFrenchadvertising,thetendencytouse

Englishandglobalimageryiscorrelatedwithsocialtrends,consumerattitudes

andlegislativeframeworks.Hornikx(2007)providesanexampleofan

investigationtogaugereceptionofmultilingualityinadvertisingmaterialby

testingtheassociationsevokedbytheforeignlanguageandexaminingtheways

inwhichthoseassociationsaretransferredtotheproductbeingadvertised.

Anumberofscholars(e.g.SnellHornby1999)havefocusedonthetranslation

ofcommercialdocumentsfromthetourismsector.Sumberg(2004),for

example,analyseshowdifferentstrategiestoattractBritishtouriststoSpainand

Francearereflectedintherespectivetouristbrochuresandintargettext

productionstrategies.NavarroErrastietal.(2004)bringtogetheracollection

ofpaperswhichpresentpragmaticanalysesofdiverseaspectsoftourist

literatureanditstranslation.

Othercommercialtextswithapersuasivefunctionwhichhavebeenresearched

bytranslationscholarsincludecompanyfinancialreportingdocuments(see,for

example,BöttgerandBührig2003;Böttger2004).Introductorysectionsof

annualreports(e.g.thelettertotheshareholders)areoftenthefocusof

attentionduetothewayinwhichtheyreflectcorporateculturesandthe

possibilityforvariationinhowcorporatephilosophiesareexpressedindifferent

cultures.Baumgartenetal.(2004),forexample,findthatGermantranslations

ofletterstoshareholdersaretypicallymoredistant,moreneutral,moreformal

andmorefactualthantheirEnglishsourcetexts.

Theoreticalandmethodologicalframeworks

Muchoftheresearchonthetranslationofmarketingmaterialisinformedby

theoriesfromneighbouringdisciplinesofcrossculturalcommunication(e.g.

Katan1999/2004),semiotics(e.g.Freitas2004),interpersonal