Mona Baker & Gabriela Saldanha. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (2nd edition)

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havevariousimplications,includingdeductionsontranslationfeesforthe

segmentswithexistingmatches.TMhasalsointroduceda‘pretranslation’

processwhereTMisusedinanoninteractivecontextpriortobeginningthe

actualtranslationprocess.ThepretranslationfunctioncomparesthenewST

againstthecontentsoftheTMdatabaseandautomaticallyreplacesanyST

matcheswiththecorrespondingtargetlanguagesegments,thusproducinga

hybridtext,partlyinthesourcelanguageandpartlyinthetargetlanguage.This

functionenablesclientstoavoidgivingthetranslatordirectaccesstotheirTM

databaseaswellasovercomingtheissueofdataformatincompatibilitybetween

differentTMproducts.However,theresultingtextposesanewchallengetothe

translator,whonotonlyhastotranslatethesourcelanguagefragmentsbutalso

toverifyandtransformintoanacceptabletranslationthetargetlanguage

fragmentswhichmayonlypartiallycorrespondtogivenSTsegments.Wallis

(2006)suggeststhattheuseoftheTMpretranslationfunctioncouldhavea

negativeimpactintermsoftranslators’jobsatisfactionaswellastranslation

QUALITY.

WidespreadimpactofTM

Thebenefitofreusingprevioushumantranslationsforthesameorsimilar

segmentshasbeenlargelyacceptedinthecommercialtranslationworld.

Accordingly,ithasbecomecommonpracticetoobtaindiscountsintranslation

feesiftherearepreexistingTMmatches(Austermühl2001:141;Heyn

1998:136).Asaresult,TMhasoccasionallycreatedunrealisticexpectations

thatitinstantlyprovidessubstantialcostsavingswithoutanynegative

consequencesforthequalityofthetranslation.Evenwhenthereareexact

matches,thetranslatorstillneedstoconsiderthetextasawhole,andinthelight

ofthenewcontextinwhichthematchedsegmentsaretobeinserted.Itis

possibleforTMtocreatea‘sentencesalad’effect(Bédard2000)when

sentencesaredrawn(withoutadequatecontextualinformation)fromvarious

translationmemoriescreatedbydifferenttranslatorswithdifferentstyles.A

relatedproblem,describedas‘peepholetranslations’(Heyn1998:135),

concernsthecohesionandreadabilityofthetranslation,whichcanbe

compromisedforthesakeoffacilitatingTM–forexample,whentranslators

avoidtheuseofanaphoricandcataphoricreferences,optinginsteadforlexical

repetitionsthatcanyieldmoreexactorfullmatches.Astudyonconsistencyand

variationintechnicaltranslation(Merkel1998)suggeststhatwhilethe

consistencyfacilitatedbyTMisinkeepingwiththegeneralaimoftechnical

translation,itisnotalwayswelcomedbysometranslatorswhenthesame

segmentappearsindifferentfunctionalcontexts.Industrysourceshavealso

reportedanecdotalevidenceofTM’snegativeimpactonthedevelopmentof

translationcompetence,althoughthisneedstobesubstantiatedbyindepth

empiricalstudies(Kenny2007).Thecostofthesoftwareandthesteeplearning

curvearealsoseenasnegativeaspectsofTM.

Anothercontroversialissueconcernstheownershipofthecontentofa

translationmemory,whichcanbeacommerciallyvaluableasset.Theethical

questionofwhetherornottheparticularmemorydatabelongtothe

commissionerofthejobortothetranslatorescapestheparametersof

conventionalcopyrightagreements(BiauGilandPym2006:10;Topping

2000:59).Theuseofthepretranslationfunctionmentionedaboveisgenerally

motivatedbytheclient’sdesiretomaintainexclusiveaccesstotheirTM

content.Atthesametime,variousinitiativesarenowemergingtoshareTM

dataonacooperativebasis,asproposedbytheTranslationAutomationUser

Society(TAUS),oracommercialbasis,suchasTMMarketplacelicences

(Zetzsche2007:38),withfarreachingimplicationsforthescopeoftranslation

recycling.

FutureofCAT

CATislikelytobeenhancedbytheuseofawiderangeoftechnology

componentswhichhavenotbeendevelopedspecificallywithtranslationtasksin

mind.Forexample,speechrecognitionsystemsarebecomingapopularCAT

toolamongtranslators,includingtheirintegrationintoTMsystems(Benis1999).

IntheareaofAUDIOVISUALTRANSLATION,speechrecognition

technologyisbeingappliedtotheproductionofintralingualsubtitlesforliveTV

programmesin

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amodecalled‘respeaking’,wheresubtitlesaregeneratedinrealtimebythe

subtitlerdictating,insteadoftyping,subtitlestothecomputer(seeEugeniand

Mack2006).IntermsoftheuseofInternetrelatedtechnology,Beyetal.

(2006)haveproposedtodesignanddevelopanonlineCATenvironmentby

exploitingWebbasedcollaborativeauthoringplatformssuchasWikiwitha

viewtofacilitatingtranslationworkbyvolunteertranslatorswhocollaborate

online.

TheincreasingavailabilityofCORPORAisalsolikelytoimpactthefutureof

CAT.AfeasibilitystudyontheapplicationofExamplebasedMachine

Translation(EBMT)toAUDIOVISUALTRANSLATION(Armstrongetal.

2006),forexample,wasinspiredbythepotentialreusabilityofprior

translationsofsubtitleswhicharebecomingincreasinglyavailableinelectronic

form.InparallelwithfurtherautomationinvolvingtheintegrationofTMand

MACHINETRANSLATIONintothetranslationworkflow(Zetzsche2007),

finetuningofTMtechnologycontinuestofocusonhowtoassistthehuman

translator.TheenhancementofCATapplicationsislikelytobenefitfrom

translatorfocusedinvestigations,suchasempiricalprocessorientedtranslation

research(seePSYCHOLINGUISTIC/COGNITIVEAPPROACHES).

Dragsted(2004,2006),forexample,hashighlightedadiscrepancybetween

technologyimposedsegmentationofTMandthecognitivesegmentation

inherenttothehumantranslationprocess,andO’Brien(2006)haslookedat

differencesintranslators’cognitiveloadswhendealingwithdifferenttypesof

TMmatches.MarketdemandswillcontinuetodriveappliedresearchonCAT

but,ashighlightedinrecentstudieselicitingusers’viewsonTMsystems(García

2006;Lagoudaki2006),involvementoftheprofessionalcommunityof

translatorsintheresearchanddevelopmentofCATtoolsiscrucialinshedding

lightonthepracticalimplicationsoftheuseoftechnologyinthisfield.

Seealso:

CORPORA;LOCALIZATION;MACHINETRANSLATION;

TERMINOLOGY.

Furtherreading

Austermühl2001;Bowker2002a;O’HaganandAshworth2002;Somers

2003b;Quah2006.

MINAKOO’HAGAN

Conferenceinterpreting,historicalandcognitiveperspectives

Interpretingistheoralorsignedtranslationoforalorsigneddiscourse,as

opposedtotheoraltranslationofwrittentexts.Thelatterisknownassight

translation.

Interpretingasanofficialorprofessionalactivityseemstohavebeenin

existencesinceveryearlytimes,atleastasfarbackasAncientEgypt(Hermann

1956/2002).Interpretershaveplayedanimportantroleinhistory,especially

duringcampaignssuchastheSpanishincursionsintoCentralandSouth

America(Kurz1991).Conferenceinterpretersbecamemostvisibleinthe

publiceyebetweenthetwoWorldWarsandduringtheNurembergtrialsafter

WorldWarII(BaigorriJalón2000,2004).Otherformsofinterpretinginclude

businessinterpreting,COURTINTERPRETING,COMMUNITY

INTERPRETINGandSIGNEDLANGUAGEINTERPRETING.Thisentry

makesparticularreferencetoconferenceinterpreting.

Typesandmodesofinterpreting

AccordingtoHerbert(1978),conferenceinterpreting(CI)wasbornduring

WorldWarI.Untilthen,importantinternationalmeetingswereheldinFrench,

theinternationallanguageatthetime.Duringthewar,somehighranking

AmericanandBritishnegotiatorsdidnotspeakFrench,whichmadeit

necessarytoresorttointerpreters.Withtheadventofsimultaneousinterpreting,

andespeciallyaftertheNurembergtrials(1945–6),conferenceinterpreting

becamemorewidespread.Itisnowusedwidely,notonlyatinternational

conferencesbutalsoforradioandTV(inJapan,‘BroadcastInterpreting’isa

recognizedbranchofinterpretingprovidedbyconferenceinterpretersand

interpreterswithCItraining),variouscoursesandlectures,highlevelmeetings

inmultinationalcorpora