Canale L.C.F., Mesquita R.A., Totten G.E. Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

occur or the creation of ledeburite networks.

Improvement in temperature control will reduce

the potential for partial melting defects.

REFERENCES

1. B.V.R. Raja, N. Pal, P.L. Talwar, and N.P.

Jayaswal, Engineering Steels for Auto-

motive Applications, Steel World (No. 3),

March 2005, p 1–3

2. R.F. Kern and M.E. Suess, Chapter 10—

Selection of Steels for Carburized Gears,

Steel Selection: A Guide for Improving

Performance and Proﬁts, John Wiley &

Sons, New York, NY, 1979, p 181–205

3. D.H. Herring, Gear Heat Treatment: The

Inﬂuence of Materials and Geometry,

Gear Technol., March/April 2004, p 35–40

4. M.B. Karamis¸ and R. I

pek, An Evaluation

of the Using Possibilities of the Carboni-

trided Simple Steels Instead of Carburized

Low Alloy Steels (Wear Properties),

Appli. Surf. Sci., Vol 119, 1997, p 25–33

5. R. Selc¸uk, R. Ipek, and M.B. Karamis¸,

A Study on Friction and Wear Behaviour

of Carburized, Carbonitrided and Borided

AISI 1020 and 5115 Steels, J. Mater.

Process. Technol., Vol 141, 2003, p 189–

196.

6. R.F. Kern, Selecting Steels and Designing

Parts for Heat Treatment, American

Society for Metals, 1968

7. A. Carter, Failures in Carburized Materi-

als, FWP J., Aug 1983, p 27–28

8. K. Palaniradja, N. Alagumurthi, and V.

Soundararajan, Optimization of Process

Variables in Gas Carburizing Process: A

Taguchi Study with Experimental Inves-

tigation on SAE 8620 and AISI 3310

Steels, Turkish J. Eng. Env. Sci., Vol 29,

2005, p 279–284

9. J.N. Dutta, Gear Failures for Heat Treat-

ment and Metallographic Reasons, Tech.

J. Tata Iron Steel Co. (TISCO), Vol 24

(No. 4) 1977, p 143–149

10. O. Asi, A.C. Can, J. Pineault, and M.

Belassel, The Relationship Between Case

Depth and Bending Fatigue Strength of

Gas Carburized 8620 Steel, Surf. Coat.

Technol., Vol 201, 2007, p 5979–5987

11. C.J. Kuehmann, G.B. Olson, J.P. Wise,

and C. Campbell, Advanced Case Car-

burizing Secondary Hardening Steels, U.S.

Patent 6,176,946, Jan 23, 2001

12. “Carburizing,” http://www.treatallmetals.

com/gas.htm, Treat All Metals, Inc., Mil-

waukee, WI (accessed Feb 2008)

13. “Carburizing,” http://www.key-to-steel.

com/Articles/Art114.htm, Key to Metals

Group, Zu

rich, Switzerland (accessed Feb

2008)

14. V.D. Kal’ner, V.A. Tel’dekov, and S.A.

Yurasov, Microstructural Hardenability

Diagrams of the Impregnated Case and

Possibilities of Their Practical Use in

Carburizing and Carbonitriding, Met. Sci.

Heat Treat. (USSR), (No. 4) April 1984,

p 31–35 (translated from Russian)

15. R.F. Kern and M.E. Suess, Appendix

VII—Methods of Calculating the Hard-

enability of Heat Treating Grades of Steel,

Steel Selection: A Guide for Improving

Performance and Proﬁts, John Wiley &

Sons, New York, NY, 1979, p 405–437

(see p 424–434)

16. J. Grosch, Chapter 14—Fundamentals of

Carburizing and Toughness of Carburised

Components, Quenching and Carburizing,

Proceedings of the Third Seminar of the

International Federation for Heat Treat-

ment and Surface Engineering, The Insti-

tute of Materials, London, U.K., 1993,

p 227–249

17. R.E. Gliner, Computer Design of Rational

Alloying of Carburized Steels, Met. Sci.

Heat Treat. (USSR), Vol 42 (No. 7–8),

July–Aug 2000, p 289–291 (translated

from Russian)

18. J.M. Tartaglia and G.T. Eldis, Core Hard-

enability Calculations for Carburizing

Steels, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 15, June

1984, p 1173–1183

19. G. Parrish, Chapter 6—Core Properties

and Case Depth, Carburizing: Micro-

structure and Properties, ASM Interna-

tional, 1999, p 135–170

20. M. Cristinacce, Heat Treatment of Metals:

Distortion in Case Carburized Compo-

nents—The Steelmaker’s View, Heat

Treat. Met., (No. 1), 1999, p 18–21

21. K. Genel and M. Demirkol, Effect of Case

Depth on Fatigue Performance of AISI

8620 Carburized Steel, Int. J. Fatigue,

Vol 21, 1999, p 207–212

22. H.E. Boyer, Ed. Chapter 1—Carburizing

Principles, Case Hardening of Steel, ASM

International, 1987, p 1–12

23. S. Farfa

n, C. Rubio-Gonza

lez, T. Cer-

vantes-Herna

ndez, and G. Mesmacque,

234 / Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_177-240.pdf/Chap_06/ 18/8/2008 3:22PM Plate # 0 pg 234

High Cycle Fatigue, Low Cycle Fatigue

and Failure Modes of Carburized

Steel, Int. J. Fatigue, Vol 26, 2004, p 673–

678

24. H.E. Boyer, Ed., Chapter 2—Gas Carbur-

izing Practices, Case Hardening of Steel,

ASM International, 1987, p 13–69

25. G. Krauss, Chapter 13—Microstructure,

Residual Stresses and Fatigue of Carbur-

ized Steels, Quenching and Carburizing,

Proceedings of the Third Seminar of the

International Federation for Heat Treat-

ment and Surface Engineering, The Insti-

tute of Materials, London, U.K., 1993,

p 205–225

26. J. Titus, The Top Ten Ways to Keep Your

New or Used Carburizing Equipment

Operating at Maximum Performance and

Efﬁciency, Proceedings of the 22nd Heat

Treating Society Conference and the Sec-

ond International Surface Engineering

Congress, N.B. Dahotre, R.J. Gaster, R.A.

Hill, and O.O. Popoola, Ed., Sept 15–17,

2003 (Indianapolis, IN), ASM Interna-

tional, p 52–62

27. R.S. Hyde, G. Krauss, and D.K. Matlock,

Phosphorus and Carbon Segregation:

Effects on Fatigue and Fracture of Gas-

Carburized Modiﬁed 4320 Steel, Metall.

Mater. Trans. A, Vol 26 (No. 6), June

1994, p 1229–1240

28. T. Sekercioglu and V. Kovan, Pitting

Failure of a Truck Spiral Bevel Gear, Eng.

Fail. Anal., Vol 14, 2007, p 614–619

29. C. Razim and H. Streng, Properties of

Case-Hardened Components—Basic

Considerations Concerning the Deﬁnition

and Evaluation of Toughness, Case-

Hardened Steels: Microstructural and

Residual Stress Effects, D.E. Diesburg,

Ed., The Metallurgical Society of AIME,

1984, p 1–15

30. G. F. Vander Voort, Ed., Ferrous Marten-

site, Metallography and Microstructures,

Vol 9, ASM Handbook, ASM Interna-

tional, 2004.

31. “AISI 8620 Thermal Treatments,” http://

www.crucibleservice.com/eselector/

prodbyapp/carbon/8620.html, Crucible

Service Centers, Camillus, NY (accessed

Feb 2008)

32. D.W. Ingham and P.C. Clarke, Prediction

of Microstructure and Hardness in Car-

burized Gears, Case-Hardened Steels:

Microstructural and Residual Stress

Effects, D.E. Diesburg, Ed., The Metal-

lurgical Society of AIME, 1984, p 89–111

33. G.E. Totten, M. Narazaki, and R.R.

Blackwood, Failures Related to Heat

Treating Operations, Failure Analysis and

Prevention, Vol 11, ASM Handbook, ASM

International, 2002, p 192–223

34. H.E. Boyer, Ed., Chapter 4—Liquid Case-

Hardening Methods, Case Hardening of

Steel, ASM International, 1987, p 103–140

35. G.E. Totten, M. Przylecka, and W. Gestwa,

Use of Aqueous Polymer Quenchants for

Hardening Carbonitrided Parts, Nitriding

Technology Theory and Practice, A.

Nakonieczny, Ed., Proceed. of Ninth

International Seminar International Fed-

eration for Heat Treatment and Surface

Engineering, Institute of Precision Mech-

anics, Warsaw Poland, 2003, p 405–414

36. T. Reti, Residual Stresses in Carburized,

Carbonitrided, and Case-Hardened Com-

ponents, Handbook of Residual Stress and

Deformation of Steel, G. Totten, M. Howes

and T. Inoue, Ed., ASM International,

2002, p. 189–208

37. G. Parrish, Chapter 4—Retained Auste-

nite, Carburizing: Microstructure and

Properties, ASM International, 1999,

p 77–97

38. C.Y. Kung and J.J. Rayment, An Exam-

ination of the Validity of Existing Empe-

rical Formulae for the Calculation of M

Temperature, Metall. Mater. Trans. A,

Vol 13, Feb 1994, p 328–331

39. I.L. Trusova, Problem of Retained Auste-

nite in Deeply Cemented Steel

20Kh2N4A, Met. Sci. Heat Treat. (USSR),

Vol 40 (No. 11–12), Nov-Dec 1998,

p 445–448 (translated from Russian)

40. A.P. Gulyaev, Cold Treatment of Steel,

Met. Sci. Heat Treat. (USSR), Vol 40

(No. 11–12), Nov-Dec 1998, p 449–455

(translated from Russian)

41. H.E. Boyer, Ed. Chapter 6—Heat Treat-

ment Considerations, Case Hardening of

Steel, ASM International, 1987, p 151–194

42. G. Parrish, Chapter 7—Post Hardening

Treatments—Thermal, The Inﬂuence of

Microstructure on the Properties of Case-

Hardened Components, American Society

for Metals, 1980, p 167–193

43. G. Parrish, Chapter 7—Post Carburizing

Thermal Treatments, Carburizing: Micro-

structure and Properties, ASM Interna-

tional, 1999, p 171–199

Sources of Failures in Carburized and Carbonitrided Components / 235

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_177-240.pdf/Chap_06/ 18/8/2008 3:22PM Plate # 0 pg 235

44. D.P. Koistinen, The Distribution of Resi-

dual Stresses in Carburized Cases and

Their Origin, Trans. ASM, Vol 50, 1958,

p 227–241

45. J.L. Pacheco and G. Krauss, Micro-

structure and High Bending Fatigue

Strength of Carburized Steel, J. Heat

Treat., Vol 7 (No. 2), 1989, p 77–86

46. O. Asi, An Investigation of Retained

Austenite Contents in Carburized SAE

8620 Steel, G. U. J. Sci., Vol 17 (No. 4),

2004, p 103–113

47. V.F. da Silva, L.F. Canale, D. Spinelli,

W.W. Bose-Filho, and O.R. Crnkovic,

Inﬂuence of Retained Austenite on Short

Fatigue Crack Growth and Wear Re-

sistance of Case Carburized Steel,

J. Mater. Eng. Perform., Vol 8, 1999,

p 543–548

48. D. Jeddi, H. Sidhom, D. Ghiglione, and

H.-P. Lierade, Role of Cyclic Stability of

Retained Austenite in Fatigue Perfor-

mance of Carburized 14NiCr11 Steel,

J. Mater. Eng. Perform., Vol 14, 2005,

p 37–49

49. H.-J. Kim and Y.-G. Kweon, The Effects

of Retained Austenite on Dry Sliding Wear

of Carburized Steels, Wear, Vol 193, 1996,

p 8–15

50. I.S. Kozlovskii, S.E. Manevskii, and I.I.

Sokolov, Effect of Retained Austenite on

the Resistance to Scoring of Steel

20Kh2N4A, Met. Sci. Heat Treat. (USSR),

Vol 20 (No. 1), Jan 1978, p 78–80 (trans-

lated from Russian)

51. C. Kim, Fracture of Case-Hardened Steels

and Residual Stress Effects, Case-Har-

dened Steels: Microstructural and Resi-

dual Stress Effects, D.E. Diesburg, Ed.,

The Metallurgical Society of AIME, 1984,

p 59–87

52. J.A. Burnett, Prediction of Stresses Gen-

erated during the Heat Treating of Case

Carburized Parts, Residual Stress for

Designers and Metallurgists, L.J. Vande

Walle, Ed., American Society for Metals,

1981, p 51–69

53. N. Kanetake, Chapter 17—Effect of Car-

burising on Mechanical Properties of

Steels, Quenching and Carburizing, Pro-

ceedings of the Third Seminar of the

International Federation for Heat Treat-

ment and Surface Engineering, The Insti-

tute of Materials, London, U.K., 1993,

p 281–291

54. G. Albertini, G. Bruno, F. Fiori, M. Mar-

cantoni, E. Quadrini, and F. Turquier,

Residual Stresses in Case Hardened

Automotive Steel Gears, Mater. Res.

Forum, Vol 404–407, 2002, p 191–196

55. M. Benedetti, V. Fontanari, B.-R. Ho

hn, P.

Oster, and T. Tobie, Inﬂuence of Shot

Peening on Bending Tooth Fatigue Limit

of Case Hardened Gears, Int. J. Fatigue,

Vol 24, 2002, p 1127–1136

56. J. Champaigne, “Shot Peening Overview,”

http://www.shotpeener.com, Electronics

Inc., Mishawaka, IN, 2001 (accessed Feb

2008)

57. B.A. Shaw, C. Aylott, P. O’Hara, and K.

Brimble, The Role of Residual Stress on

Fatigue Strength of High Performance

Gearing, Int. J. Fatigue, Vol 25, 2003,

p 1279–1283

58. Nakonieczny, W. Szyrie, and J. Suwalski

Residual Stresses, Microstructure and

Fatigue Behaviour of Carburized Layers

Before and After Shot Peening, Paper

1996073, Sixth International Conference

on Shot Peening, Conference Proceedings

of ICSP-6, J. Champaigne, Ed., Sept 2–5,

1996 (San Francisco, CA)

59. M. Kikuchi, H. Ueda, K. Hanai, and T.

Naito, The Improvement of Fatigue Dur-

ability of Carburized Steels with Surface

Structure Anomolies by Shot Peening,

Paper 1984067, Second International

Conference on Shot Peening, Conference

Proceedings of ICSP-2, 194, p 208–214

60. D.H. Herring, A Tutorial on Shot Blasting

and Shot/Laser Peening, Ind. Heat., Vol 73

(No. 8), Aug 2006, p 20–22

61. “Shot Peening and Shot Blasting,” OSK-

Kiefer GmbH, Oberﬂa

chen and Strahl-

technik, Ettlingen, Germany

62. M. Kobayashi, T. Matsui, and Y. Mur-

akami, Mechanism of Creation of Com-

pressive Residual Stress by Shot Peening,

Int. J. Fatigue, Vol 20 (No. 5), 1998, p 351–

357

63. C. Jia-Xiang and A. Bing-qiu, The Effect

of Shot Peening on Contact Fatigue Life of

Carburized Steel, Proceedings of First

International Conference on Shot Peen-

ing, Sept 14–17, 1981 (Paris), Pergamon

Press, p 333–339

64. C. Peyrac, J.F. Flavenot, and F. Convert,

Combining Case Hardening and Shot

Peening for Gear Steels: Inﬂuence on

Residual Stress, Proceedings for the

236 / Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_177-240.pdf/Chap_06/ 18/8/2008 3:22PM Plate # 0 pg 236

Seventh International Conference on Shot

Peening, A. Nakonieczny, Ed., Sept 28–

Oct 1, 1999 (Warsaw, Poland), p 362–370

65. M. Kikuchi, H. Ueda, and J. Naito, Fatigue

Behavior of Carburized Steel with Internal

Oxides Near the Surface, Metall. Mater.

Trans. A, Vol 18 (No. 1), Jan 1987, p 156–

158

66. J.L. Woods, S.R. Daniewicz, and R. Nel-

lums, Increasing the Bending Fatigue

Strength of Carburized Spur Gear Teeth

by Presetting, Int. J. Fatigue, Vol 21, 1999,

p 549–556

67. K. Funatani, Residual Stresses during Gear

Manufacture, Handbook of Residual Stress

and Deformation of Steel, G. Totten, M.

Howes, and T. Inoue, Ed., ASM Inter-

national, 2002, p 437–457

68. Chapter 14—Dimensional Control, Gas

Carburizing, ASM Society for Metals,

1964, p 125–136

69. J. Koutsky and V. Pechman, “Heat-

Treatment Procedure and Volume Change,

Heat Treatment of Engineering Com-

ponents: Proceedings of The Conference

Organized by the Heat Treatment Joint

Committee of the Iron and Steel Institute,

Dec 17–18, 1969 (Royal Garden Hotel,

London), The Institute of Metals and The

Institute of Metallurgists, p 129–133

70. G.A. Fuller, Atmosphere Carburizing

at 927



C (1700



F) for Distortion Con-

trol, J. Heat Treat., Vol 8 (No. 1) 1990,

p 21–26

71. C. Prinz, B. Clausen, F. Hoffmann, R.

Kohlmann, and H.-W. Zoch, Metallurgical

Inﬂuence on Distortion of the Case-

Hardening Steel 20MnCr5, Proceedings of

First International Conference on Dis-

tortion Engineering, Sept 14–16, 2005

(Bremen, Germany), p 75–82

72. D.T. Llewellyn and W.T. Cook, Heat-

Treatment Distortion in Case-Carburizing

Steels, Met. Technol., May 1977, p 265–

278

73. L.N. Vashchuk, O.A. Kon’ko, V.T. Alek-

seenko, and V.K. Adamanova, Volume

Changes of Large Gear Wheels in Car-

burization and Heat Treatment, Met. Sci.

Heat Treat. (USSR), Vol 28 (No. 12),

Nov–Dec 1986, p 858–860 (translated

from Russian)

74. V.A. Murzin, V.P. Ponomarev, N.N. Tol-

machevakii, G.D. Glezer, A.V. Poropov,

and A.P. Kul’, Effect of Separate Heat

Treatment Parameters on the Accuracy of

Gear Wheels, Met. Sci. Heat Treat.

(USSR), Vol 12 (No. 12), Dec 1970,

p 1007–1010 (tranlated from Russian)

75. V.A. Bulgakov, Effect of Original Struc-

ture on Deformation and Warping of

Machine Parts after Final Heat Treatment,

Met. Sci. Heat Treat. (USSR), Vol 19

(No. 9), Sept 1977, p 784–786 (translated

from Russian)

76. N.M. Grinberg and M.P. Konovalova,

Reasons for the Changes in the Dimen-

sions of Steel Parts During Carburizing,

Met. Sci. Heat Treat. (USSR), Vol 10 (No.

6), June 1968, p 483–485 (translated from

Russian)

77. J.Wyszykowski Chapter 12—The Defects

and Quality Inspection of Heat-Treatment,

The Engineers Handbook—The Heat-

Treatment of Ferrous Metals, W. Luty,

Ed., Publishing House of Scientiﬁcally-

Technical, Warsaw, 1977, p 600–627

78. G. Krauss, Chapter 10—Surface Hard-

ening, Principles of Heat Treatment of

Steel, American Society for Metals, 1980,

p 247–273

79. G. Krauss, Steels: Processing, Structure,

and Performance, ASM International,

2005

80. C.R. Brooks, Chapter 4—Quenching of

Steels, Principles of the Heat Treatment of

Plain Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, ASM

International, 1996, p 87–126

81. S.I. Aksenova, M.A. Balter, I.S. Dukar-

evich, and M.M. Gurarii, Causes of Clea-

vage on Case-Hardened Gear Wheels,

Met. Sci. Heat Treat. (USSR), Vol 30

(No. 3), March 1988, p 191–194 (translated

from Russian)

82. A.J. McEvily, K. Pohl, and P. Mayr,

Comparison of the Fractographic Features

of a Carburized Steel Fractured Under

Monotonic or Cyclic Loading, Mater.

Charact., Vol 36, 1996, p 153–157

83. Kh.G. Tkhagapsoev and G.K. Surzhinskii,

Cracking in the Carburized Case of Gears

During Their Grinding, Met. Sci. Heat

Treat. (USSR), Vol 11 (No. 3–4), March–

April 1969, p 224–226 (translated from

Russian)

84. G. Parrish, Chapter 8—Post Hardening

Treatments—Mechanical, The Inﬂuence

of Microstructure on the Properties of

Case-Hardened Components, American

Society for Metals, 1980, p 195–228

Sources of Failures in Carburized and Carbonitrided Components / 237

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_177-240.pdf/Chap_06/ 18/8/2008 3:22PM Plate # 0 pg 237

85. G. Parrish, Chapter 8—Postcarburizing

Mechanical Treatments, Carburizing:

Microstructures and Properties, ASM

International, 1999, p 199–230

86. M. Lawerenz and I. Ekis, Creating an In-

House Shot Peening Speciﬁcation for

Gears—Part 2, Paper 1993118, Shot

Peener, Vol 7 (No. 1), 1993, p 3–5

87. C. Bahnsen, B. Clausen, F. Hoffmann, P.

Mayr, and H.-W. Zoch, Inﬂuence of

Carburising on Distortion Behavior, Pro-

ceedings of First International Con-

ference on Distortion Engineering, Sept

14–16, 2005 (Bremen, Germany), p 235–

242

88. M. Izciler and M. Tabur, Abrasive Wear

Behavior of Different Case Depth Gas

Carburized AISI 8620 Gear Steel, Wear,

Vol 260 (No. 1–2), 2006, p 90–98

89. M. Boniardi, F. D’Errico, and C. Taglia-

bue, Inﬂuence of Carburizing and Nitrid-

ing on Failure of Gears—A Case Study,

Eng. Fail. Anal., Vol 13, 2006, p 312–339

90. G. Parrish, Chapter 6—Core Properties

and Case Depth, The Inﬂuence of Micro-

structure on the Properties of Case-

Hardened Components, American Society

for Metals, 1980, p 131–165

91. L. Faqian, L. Shuanlu, l. Helin, Q.

Changyi, Z. Jie, T. Jiping, and C. Jun,

Analysis of Causes of Casing Elevator

Fracture, Eng. Fail. Anal., Vol 14, 2007,

p 606–613

92. Z. Yu, X. Xu, and H. Ding, Failure Ana-

lysis of a Diesel Engine Piston-Pin, Eng.

Fail. Anal., Vol 14, 2007, p 110–117

93. Z.Ya. Nostislavskii, Yu.N. Griboedov, and

S.I. Markov, Effect of the Atmosphere

During Heating of Carburized Cr-Ni Steel

to Quenching Temperature on Decom-

position of Austenite, Met. Sci. Heat Treat.

(USSR), Vol 18 (No. 5–6), May–June 1976,

p 443–445

94. G. Parrish, Chapter 2—Decarburization,

Carburizing: Microstructure and Proper-

ties, ASM International, 1999, p 37–49

95. G. Parrish, Chapter 5—Inﬂuential

Microstructural Features, Carburizing:

Microstructure and Properties, ASM

International, 1999, p 99–133

96. Atlas of Microstructures of Industrial

Alloys, Vol 7, Metals Handbook, 8th ed.,

American Society for Metals, 1972, p 4

97. T. Isogai, R. Uchino, M. Sato, and Y.

Kono, Method for Heat Treatment of

Steel, U.S. Patent 6,149,734, Nov 21,

2000

98. E. Gianotti, I. Calliari, M. Zanesco, and

E. Ramous, Grain Boundary Oxidation

in Endothermic Gas Carburizing Process,

Proceedings of the Seventh International

Tooling Conference, Tooling Materials

and Their Applications from Research to

Market, Vol 2, May 2–5, 2006, Politecnico

Di Torino, Torino, Italy, p 481–490

99. D.K. Matlock, K.A. Alogab, M.D.

Richards, and J.G. Speer, Surface Proces-

sing to Improve the Fatigue Resistance of

Advanced Bar Steels for Automotive

Applications, Mater. Res., Vol 8 (No. 4),

2005, p 453–459

100. H.-P. Schmidt, Process for Avoiding Sur-

face Oxidation in the Carburization of

Steels, U.S. Patent 5,498,299, March 12,

1996

101. V.D. Kal’ner and S.A. Yurasov, Internal

Oxidation During Carburizing, Met. Sci.

Heat Treat. (USSR), Vol 12, (No. 6), June

1970, p 451–454 (translated from Russian)

102. J.D. Verhoeven, N. Chen, and A.J. Bevolo,

Scanning Auger Microscopy Character-

ization of the Internal Oxidation Produced

on Carburizing, J. Heat Treat., Vol 9

(No. 2), 1992, p 73–80

103. X. An, J. Cawley, W.M. Rainforth, and L.

Chen, A Study of Internal Oxidation in

Carburized Steels by Glow Discharge Op-

tical Emission Spectroscopy and Scanning

Electron Microscopy, Spectrochim. Acta

B, At. Spectrosc., Vol 58, 2003, p 689–698

104. S. Laue, H. Bomas, and F. Hoffman,

Inﬂuence of Surface Condition on the

Fatigue Behaviour of Specimens Made of

SAE 5115 Case-Hardened Steel, Fatigue

Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct., Vol 29, 2006,

p 229–241

105. M. Lohrmann and W. Lerche, Investiga-

tion of Process and Steel Inﬂuences on the

Extent of Internal Oxidation during Gas

Carburizing, Heat Treat. Met., Vol 27

(No. 4), 2000, p 85–90

106. I.S. Kozlovskii, A.T. Kalinin, A. Va. Novi-

kova, E.A. Lebedeva, and A.I. Feofanova,

Internal Oxidation during Case-Hardening

of Steels in Endothermic Atmospheres,

Met. Sci. Heat Treat (USSR), Vol 9 (No. 3),

March 1967, p 157–161

107. W.D. Kehr and H.E. Seese, Surface Attack

in Chromium-Iron Alloys, IBM J., Sept

1966, p 420–421

238 / Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_177-240.pdf/Chap_06/ 18/8/2008 3:22PM Plate # 0 pg 238

108. Z. Yu and X. Xu, Failure Analysis of an

Idler Gear of Diesel Engine Gearbox, Eng.

Fail. Anal., Vol 13, 2006, p 1092–1100

109. M. Umemoto, Z.G. Liu, K. Masuyama,

and K. Tsuchiya, Inﬂuence of Alloy Ad-

ditions on Production and Properties of

Bulk Cementite, Scr. Mater., Vol 45, 2001,

p 391–397

110. S.N. Saltykov and N.V. Tarasova, Anodic

Dissolution of Ferrite Phases of Iron-

Carbon Ferrite-Cementite Alloys with

Different Forms of Cementite, Prot. Met.

(Russia), Vol 42 (No. 5), 2006, p 501–506

111. V.Ya. Zubov, Patenting of Steel Wire,

Met. Sci. Heat Treat., (USSR), Vol 14

(No. 9), Sept 1972, p 793–800

112. G. Parrish, Chapter 3—Carbides, The

Inﬂuence of Microstructure on the Proper-

ties of Case-Hardened Components, Am-

erican Society for Metals, 1980, p 39–60

113. T. Ichihara and H. Fujiwara, Pullu Unit

Having One-Way Clutch, U.S. Patent

Application US2003/0085091 A1, May 8,

2003

114. T. Nakamura, S. Nakamura, T. Kimura,

T. Yamaguchi, K. Otani, N. Uchiyama,

N. Kino, and T. Nanbu, High Bearing

Pressure-Resistant Member, U.S. Patent

6,569,267 B1, May 27, 2003

115. G. Krauss, Heat Treatment, Micro-

structures, and Residual Stresses in Car-

burized Steels, Conf. Proceed. Quenching

and Distortion Control, G.E. Totten, Ed.,

ASM International, 1992, p 181–191

116. L.P. Karpov, Effect of Quenching Condi-

tions on the Carbide Network in Steel

07Kh16N6, Met. Sci. Heat Treat. (USSR),

Vol 35 (No. 1), Jan 1993, p 20–23 (trans-

lated from Russian)

117. G. Diego, M. Serrano, and A.M. Lancha,

Failure Analysis of a Multiplier from a

Kaplan Turbine, Eng. Fail. Anal., Vol 7,

2000, p 27–34

118. L. Zhang and B.G. Thomas, State of the

Art in Evaluation and Control of Steel

Cleanliness, ISIJ Int., Vol 43 (No. 3),

2003, p 271–291

119. Y. Murakami and M. Endo, Effects of

Defects, Inclusions, and Inhomogenities

on Fatigue Strength, Fatigue, Vol 16,

April 1994, p 163–182

120. H. Bomas and M. Schleicher, Application

of the Weakest-Link Concept to the

Endurance Limit of Notched and Multi-

axially Loaded Specimens of Carburized

Steel 16MnCrS5, Fatigue Fract. Eng.

Mater. Struct., Vol 28, 2005, p 983–995

121. T. Wilks, G.P. Cavallaro, C. Subramanian,

K.N. Strafford, P. French, and J.E. Allison,

Conditions Prevailing in the Carburizing

Process and Their Effect on the Fatigue

Properties of Carburized Gears, J Mater.

Process. Technol., Vol 40, 1994, p 111–

125

122. T. Masuyama, K. Inoue, M. Yamanaka, K.

Kitamura, and T. Saito, Evaluation of

Bending Strength of Carburized Gears

Based on Inferential Identiﬁcation of

Principal Surface Layer Defects, JSME

Int. J., Series C, Vol 45 (No. 3), 2002,

p 794–801

123. P. Brechot, A.B. Cardis, W.R. Murphy,

and J. Thiessen, Micropitting Resistant

Industrial Gear Oils with Balanced Per-

formance, Ind. Lubr. Tribol., Vol 52

(No. 3), p 125–136

124. S. Matsumoto, “On the Design of Surface

Durability of Rolling-Sliding Contact

Surface,” Technical Paper n77-DET-115,

American Society of Mechanical Engi-

neers, Sept 26–30, 1977

125. T.L. Krantz, M.P. Alanou, H.P. Evans, and

R.W. Snidle, Surface Fatigue Lives of

Case-Hardened Gears with an Improved

Surface Finish, J. Tribology, Vol 23, Oct,

p 709–716

126. B.B. Vinokur, S.E. Kindratyuk, R.A.

Khrunik, K.B. Katsov and I.V. Kokotailo,

Inﬂuence of Carbon on the Contact En-

durance of Carburized and High-Carbon

Steels, Sov. Mater. Sci., Vol 22 (No. 2),

March 1986, p 211–213

127. R.C. Graham, A. Olver, and P.B. Mac-

pherson, “Investigation into the Mech-

anisms of Pitting in High-Hardness

Carburized Steels, Paper 80-C2/DET-118,

ASME, 1980

128. R.F. Kern and M.E. Suess, Chapter 9—

General Principles for the Selection of

Steels for Case Hardening, Steel Selection:

A Guide for Improving Performance and

Proﬁts, John Wiley & Sons, New York,

NY, 1979, p 159–180

129. A. Bensely, S.S. Jayakumar, D. Mohan

Lal, G. Nagarajan and A. Rajadurai, Fail-

ure Investigation of Crown Wheel and

Pinion, Eng. Fail. Anal., Vol 13 (No. 8),

Dec 2006, p 1285–1292

130. S. Eryu, C. Qing, and L. Xiaogang, Frac-

ture of Case Crushing of Carburized

Sources of Failures in Carburized and Carbonitrided Components / 239

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_177-240.pdf/Chap_06/ 18/8/2008 3:22PM Plate # 0 pg 239

Steel, Wear, Vol 122 (No. 1), 1988, p 57–

131. A. Moszczyn

ski, The Gas Carburized of

Steel, Publishing House of Scientiﬁcally-

Technical, Warsaw, 1983, p 259–262

132. V.I. Murav’ev and V.P. Kurbatov, Pitting

Corrosion in the Process of Heat Treat-

ment, Met. Sci. Heat Treat. (USSR), Vol 12

(No. 5), May 1970, p 393–395 (translated

from Russian)

133. V.I. Belyakova, M.F. Alekseenko, L.Ya.

Gurvich and V.L. Erofeeva, The Corrosion

Resistance of Carburized Stainless Steels,

Met. Sci. Heat Treat. (USSR), Vol 15

(No. 2), Feb 1973, p 143–146 (tanslated

from Russian)

240 / Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_177-240.pdf/Chap_06/ 18/8/2008 3:22PM Plate # 0 pg 240

Fatigue Fracture of Nitrided Layers

Aleksander Nakonieczny, Institute of Precision Mechanics

THE DURABILITY of products depends

strongly on surface conditions on the order of

1 mm to several millimeters, depending on the

type of technological process applied. The con-

dition of the surface layer is critical to wear

resistance during the process of friction and to

corrosion resistance. In the case of mechanical

loading (especially fatigue resistance) and cor-

rosion, a critical role is played by the substrate, its

condition and properties, as well as the atomic

relationship between the surface layer and the

substrate. For this very reason, one should take

into account the substrate-surface layer system

when considering the life expectancy of machine

components and assemblies. Attributes of such a

system are the thickness of the surface layer, the

ratio of this thickness to the entire cross section,

the ratio of surface hardness to core hardness,

and the state of residual stresses, usually com-

pressive, situated within the surface layer rela-

tive to the state of stresses in the substrate, which

are usually tensile. An incorrectly applied sur-

face layer may cause the formation of a structural

ﬂaw in the transition zone of the layer and may

be the location of crack initiation, especially by a

fatigue mechanism (Ref 1).

Surface engineering encompasses various

process technologies and also the service prop-

erties of products, surface-layer investigation

methodologies, and design aspects of the

substrate-layer system. In terms of service

properties of products, the functionality of

surface treatment may be assessed by deﬁning

the fatigue limit, wear resistance, or corrosion

resistance. Such evaluations are usually per-

formed on specimens in laboratory conditions.

However, the most valuable information is to be

gained from actual service trials, which also

unfortunately may be costly.

Fatigue Resistance

Fatigue resistance of machine components

is a function of their design, material and

technological parameters, as well as the type of

loading in service conditions. When discussing

the problem of fatigue resistance, one should

consider in detail the effect of these parameters

and, in the case of loads, deﬁne fatigue charac-

teristics (e.g., plots for different types of loading,

such as bending, tensile, and torque). These

problems have been sufﬁciently dealt with in the

technical literature.

In the process of searching for methods to

increase fatigue resistance, there are some con-

stant elements that have a favorable effect,

including enhancing treatments such as thermal,

thermochemical, as well as surface work hard-

ening.

In order to increase fatigue resistance, it is

not sufﬁcient to apply a chosen enhancement

treatment. Rather, it is important to select

the appropriate initial volume heat treatment

prior to successive surface, thermal, and work-

hardening treatments. The problem of enhancing

fatigue resistance of machine components by

technological methods involves the application

of not one chosen treatment but a cycle of suc-

cessive treatments. The appropriate selection

of these treatments affects the structural ﬂaw

formed in the process of enhancement, which has

a decisive inﬂuence on fatigue resistance (Ref 1).

A structural ﬂaw occurs in all locations where,

as the result of heat treatment (e.g., induction

hardening), thermochemical treatments (car-

burizing, nitriding, etc.), or work-hardening

treatments (burnishing, shot peening) of ma-

chine components, the layer formed in these

processes has different physical-chemical prop-

erties than that of the core due to a large gradient

of property changes. The value of the structural

ﬂaw coefﬁcient, b

, depends on the type of

material and the parameters of the technological

processes that cause this structural ﬂaw to form.

In other words, it depends on heat treatment and

surface hardening.

Thermal and surface work-hardening treat-

ments used industrially cause enhancement of

fatigue resistance. Based on research carried out

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_241-253.pdf/F5113_07/ 18/8/2008 3:26PM Plate # 0 pg 241

Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

L.C.F. Canale, R.A. Mesquita, and G.E. Totten, editors, p 241-253

DOI: 10.1361/faht2008p241

www.asminternational.org

by the Institute of Precision Mechanics, it can

be accepted that the fatigue limit (s

1

) rises 15

to 30% on average as a result of implementation

of such treatments. Enhancement of fatigue

resistance is obtained by structural changes,

strengthening, and favorable distribution of

residual stresses, which are formed as a result

of thermal and surface treatments.

Due to physical processes taking place within

the material during the application of surface,

thermal, and work-hardening treatments, chan-

ges in microstructural and mechanical properties

arise between the surface layer and the core

of the material. The gradient of changes of

physical-chemical properties depends on the

selected technological process and its para-

meters. Numerous examples have been noted

where the fatigue crack origins were traced to

the transition zone between the hardened surface

layer and the substrate. Figure 1 shows a fatigue

fracture with the origin located under the hard-

ened layer at the point where stresses mounted.

The mounting of stresses occurs as the result of

residual stresses created during heat treatment

combined with external stresses.

Fatigue Resistance of Steel after Nitriding

and Related Nitriding Treatments. The sig-

niﬁcance and detailed assessment of the effect of

a structural ﬂaw are explained, using investiga-

tions of the effect of variable core conditions on

fatigue resistance as an example.

Reference 2 deﬁnes the effect of tempering

temperature and time of nitriding on the

rotational-bending fatigue resistance of 40HM-

grade steel (AISI 4140). This structural steel is

commonly used for the manufacture of various

types of machine components (e.g., gears,

crankshafts). Specimens used for the study were

quenched and tempered to the following hard-

ness levels: 30 to 32 HRC, 33 to 34 HRC, and 35

to 36 HRC, applying tempering temperatures

within the range of 550 to 620



Nitriding was carried out in a controlled

process at a temperature of 530



C for 4 to

16 h. Investigations encompassed metallurgical

characterization of nitrided layers as well as

determination of fatigue resistance (s

1

). More-

over, the yield strength (R

0.2

) was determined in

conditions of shear bending (R

g0.2

For the metallurgical investigations pertain-

ing to surface hardnesses, hardness traverses,

layer thickness, and microstructure, the Neophot

30 metallograph and the Zwick microhardness

tester were used.

Investigation of fatigue resistance was carried

out with the aid of the PUNZ machine, manu-

factured by Schenk. The loading frequency was

100 Hz, and the investigations covered 10

cycles. The value of the fatigue limit was cal-

culated by the Dixon-Mood method. Results of

fatigue tests of nitrided specimens were com-

pared with results obtained for the same steel

(40HM grade) quenched and tempered to a

hardness of 30 to 32 HRC.

Fractographic investigations of fatigue frac-

tures and determination of the chemical com-

position of visible inclusions on these fractures

were carried out by scanning electron micro-

scopy. Yield strength values were determined

in cases of static bending with the aid of the

Instron TT-DM machine. The results of metal-

lurgical and strength investigations are shown in

Tables 1 and 2.

Fig. 1

Fatigue source located in the transition zone between

case and core

Table 1 Metallurgical characteristics and

corresponding values of fatigue limits for the

investigated versions of technological processing

Temper

temper-

ature

°C

Core

hardness,

HRC

Nitriding

time, h

Case depth Surface hardness

1

MPa

Effective

at 500

HV, mm

Total

at core

+50 HV

mm HV1 HV10

620 30–32 ... ... ... ... ... 550

620 30–32 4 0.13 0.24 686 642 735

16 0.26 0.46 743 657 745

590 33–34 4 0.14 0.22 752 695 720

8 0.19 0.29 777 707 725

16 0.27 0.43 786 701 777

550 35–36 4 0.16 0.2 772 698 820

16 0.30 0.42 778 699 840

242 / Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_241-253.pdf/F5113_07/ 18/8/2008 3:26PM Plate # 0 pg 242

Investigations of fatigue resistance (Table 1)

showed that nitriding, independently of process

time (case depth and core hardness), caused an

increase in the fatigue limit in comparison with

quenching and tempering. The smallest increase

in fatigue limit value (by 30%) was obtained on

specimens tempered at 590



C and nitrided for

4 h. The greatest increase in the fatigue limit (49

to 53%) was obtained on specimens tempered at

550



C and nitrided for 4 and 16 h. For the

remaining versions of technological processing,

the increase in fatigue limit was almost identical

and amounted to 31 to 35%.

Investigations of quenched and tempered and

subsequently nitrided specimens showed a vari-

ation in the value of the fatigue limit (s

1

depending on the tempering temperature.

Nitriding time did not affect the value of the

fatigue limit, both after tempering at 550



Cas

well as at 620



Some variation was observed in the case of

versions in which the tempering temperature

was 590



C. For this tempering temperature, the

highest value of the fatigue limit (777 MPa) was

obtained on specimens nitrided for 16 h. At the

same time, it was established that increasing the

time of nitriding from 4 to 8 h did not affect the

fatigue limit. The difference of approximately

1% is within experimental error. Extending the

time of nitriding from 4 and 8 h to 16 h caused

an increase in fatigue limit value by approxi-

mately 50 MPa, that is approximately 6.5%.

A comparison of specimens tempered at 550

and 620



C shows that lowering the tempering

temperature causes an increase in the fatigue

limit by approximately 12%. As has already

been mentioned, decreasing the nitriding time

fourfold, from 16 to 4 h, for a given tempering

temperature does not cause any signiﬁcant

changes of the s

1

value.

Further comparison with results obtained on

specimens tempered at 590



C indicates that

temperatures of 550 and 620



C cause a clear

variation in the effect of lowering the tempering

temperature, from the point of view of the

fatigue limit. A tempering temperature of

590



C is intermediate between the two afore-

mentioned temperatures, at which this effect is

manifest only after the application of a longer

nitriding time. It should therefore be emphasized

that by the appropriate selection of the temper-

ing temperature, it is possible to achieve an

increase in the fatigue limit with shorter nitrid-

ing times. On the other hand, selection of inap-

propriate tempering temperatures may cause the

inability to achieve an increase in the s

1

value

when the nitriding time is too short.

An analysis of angular coefﬁcients of simple

regressions of the Wo

hler plots (Table 2) indi-

cates that, for almost all versions, the angle of

inclination of the regression plots is similar. By

the same token, the sensitivity of the material to

a change in loading within limited fatigue

strength is not connected with the time of

nitriding. Only specimens tempered at 550



and nitrided for 16 h were characterized by a

slightly higher sensitivity to a change in the level

of loading. By the same token, an increase in the

level of loading within limited fatigue strength

causes a more signiﬁcant decrease in the number

of loading cycles to failure, compared with other

technological versions. Thus, shortening the

nitriding time coupled with a lower tempering

temperature is favorable even when the loading

level exceeds the fatigue limit.

Fractography of specimen fatigue fractures

showed they are of a ﬁne-grained character, with

the exception of the middle zone, which has a

differing, coarse-grained structure (catastrophic

failure zone). The clearly observed fatigue

sources occur in the form of ﬁsheyes (Fig. 2).

Table 2 Equations of regression for the

investigated technological versions

Tempering

temperature, °C

Nitriding

time, h Regression equations

620 4 s

1

= 141.2 lgN+1567.9

16 s

1

= 62.4 lgN+1146.6

590 4 s

1

= 58.6 lgN+1092.7

16 s

1

= 67.7 lgN+1201.5

550 4 s

1

= 137.2 lgN+1658.3

16 s

1

= 27.6 lgN+1025.8

Fig. 2

Appearance of fatigue source. Origina l magniﬁcation:

100·

Fatigue Fracture of Nitrided Layers / 243

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_241-253.pdf/F5113_07/ 18/8/2008 3:26PM Plate # 0 pg 243