Canale L.C.F., Mesquita R.A., Totten G.E. Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components
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Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Al Nb V
Fig. A11.24 1
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Cr Mo (4140–4142), analysis wt%, austenitized at 860
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Appendix 11: Continuous Cooling Diagrams of Selected Steels / 625
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Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Al Nb V
Fig. A11.25 1 Cr V, (6150), analysis wt%, austenitized at 875
C, previous treatment rolled
626 / Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components
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Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Al Nb V
Fig. A11.26 1
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Cr Al Mo, analysis wt%, austenitized at 900
C, previous treatment softened 650
C1h
Appendix 11: Continuous Cooling Diagrams of Selected Steels / 627
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Index
A
abrasive erosion, 129
abrasive wear, 129, 130(F), 137, 195(T), 315(F)
acute-angled keyway, 11, 12(F)
adhesion colloids, 138
adhesive wear, 129(F), 137, 315
aerospace applications (case studies)
cracking in a main landing gear attach pin, 354–355,
357(F), 358(F), 359(F)
failure analysis of a catapult holdback bar, 351–354(F),
355(F), 356(F)
failure analysis of a main landing gear lever, 362–364(F),
365(F), 366(F)
failure analysis of a nose landing gear (NLG) piston axle,
367–372(F), 373(F)
failure analysis of an aircraft hoist sling during static test,
373–375(F), 376(F), 377(F)
failure analysis of an inboard flap hinge bolt, 364–366(F),
367(F), 368(F), 369(F)
failure analysis of an internal spur gear, 375–378(F),
379(F)
fracture analysis of ASI 420 stainless steel roll pin,
359–362(F), 363(F)
main landing gear (MLG) axle, 378–380(F), 381(F),
382(F)
MLG linear actuating rod and cylinder, 355–359(F),
360(F), 361(F), 362(F)
multiple-leg aircraft-handling sling, 372–373(F), 374(F),
375(F)
nondestructive testing and failure analysis of fin
attach bolts after full-scale fatigue testing,
380–392(F&T)
aging tendency, 35–36
Agricultural Ammonia Institute, 75
AISI to non-AISI steel cross reference, 551–562(T)
Aluminizing, 33
American Association of State Highway Transportation
Officials/American Welding Society (AASHTO/
AWS), 503
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), 311(T)
annealing
austenitic stainless steels, 39
definition, 3(T)
diffusion (homogenizing annealed), 3(T)
double-annealing, 395–396
full, 3(T)
incorrect, 107(F)
intercritical ( partial), 3(T)
isothermal, 3(T)
powder, 395
recrystallization, 3(T)
soft, 3(T)
solution, 38, 39–40
spheroidized, 107(F)
stress, 459
subcritical, 3(T), 16, 266–267
temper, 346
time range (normal), 40
transformation, 346
water, 285
anode, 131–132
anodic stress, 74(F)
Association Francaise de Normalisation (AFNOR), 493
asymptotic, definition, 116
austenitic stainless steels, 4, 5(T), 36, 39
austenitizing temperatures for steel, 537–538(T)
austenitizing temperatures for direct-hardening carbon
and alloy steels (SAE), 537–538(T)
reheating (austenitizing) temperatures for hardening
of carburized carbon and alloy, 538(T)
autofrettage, 66
B
backscattered “Z” contrast, 113
bainite, 2, 209, 210(F), 279(F), 341, 403–404. See also lower
bainite; upper bainite
banding, 103(F), 278, 279(F), 353
beach marks, 77, 78(F), 97, 113, 118, 505, 506(F)
Biot modulus, 6
blind holes, 14, 33(T), 152(F)
blowholes, 155, 156
boost-diffuse cycle, 184–185
boriding, 33
brittle fracture, 30, 33–34, 53–59(F), 120–122(F)
brittle temperature range (BTR), 517
brittle transgranular fracture, 295
buckling, 5, 30, 56, 88(F), 89, 128(F)
bulk composition evaluation, 114
C
carbides
cementite, 222–223(F)
film or flake, 227, 228(F)
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Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
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carbides (continued)
globular, 223–225(F)
network, 225–227(F&T), 228(F)
overview, 222
spheroidal, 224
carbon steels
coefficients of linear thermal expansion, 541–543(T)
heat capacity, summary of, 548–549(T)
physical properties of, 541–550(T)
specific heats of, 549–550(T)
thermal conductivities of, 547(T)
thermal conductivity, summary of, 545–546(T)
thermal expansion, summary of, 544–545(T)
carbonitrided components
carburizing and carbonitriding, comparison of, 178(T)
case, definition, 183
case depth, 183, 209
case depth, improper, 208
case hardness, 209
core hardness, 209
core microstructure, 210–211, 212(F)
dimensional stability, 200–204(F)
overcarbonitriding, 211, 213, 214(F), 215(F)
overview, 177–178(F&T)
quenching, 191
quenching cracks, 205
residual stresses, 196
carbonitriding
case hardening, 397–398(F)
case studies, 411–412(F), 413–414(F)
dimensional change in, 411–412(F)
fatigue property characteristics, 246–250(F&T)
process, 177–178(F&T)
SAE 1118 steel, 491(F)
steel selection, 181
stress, 196
carburized components
carbides, 222–227(F&T)
carburizing and carbonitriding, comparison of,
178(T)
carburizing process, 184–185
case, definition, 183
case crushing, 231–232(F)
case depth, 183–185(F), 186(F)
case depth, improper, 207–208(F)
case hardness, 209, 210(F)
core microstructure, 210–211, 212(F)
decarburization, 213, 215–217(F)
design, 179–181(F)
dimensional stability, 200–204(F)
grain size, 217–219(F)
internal oxidation, 219–222(F)
macropitting, 230–231(F)
micropitting, 230
noncarbide inclusions, 228–229(F)
overcarburizing, 211, 213, 214(F), 215(F)
overview, 177–178(F&T)
partial melting, 233–234(T)
pitting corrosion, 232–233(F)
quenching, 185, 187–191
quenching cracks, 204–207(F)
residual stresses, 196–200(F&T)
retained austenite, 191–196(F&T)
steel selection and hardenability, 181–196(F&T)
survey summary of sources of gear failures, 178(T)
transition zone, 211, 213(F)
carburized steels
carbon potential, 216
case depth, 209
case structure, 218
corrosion resistance, 233
decarburization, 95(F)
film or flake carbides, 227
gas-carburized, 199–200
incorrectly, 187(F)
intergranular cracking, 96, 118
intergranular oxidation, 219, 220(F)
network carbides, 225, 226
partial melting, 233–234(T)
pitting, 226, 233
“puzzle piece”, 108(F)
retained austenite, 191–196(F&T)
spheroidized carbide particles, 224
case crushing, 231–232(F)
casting process, failures
clean steel, 165–166
cold joints, 163–165
component lifetime factors, 151
decarburization during microfusion, 162–163, 165(F)
improper cast design, 151–153(F), 154(F)
inclusions, 165–175(F&T)
macroinclusions, 166–167
microinclusions, 167–168(T)
porosity, effects due to, 154–162(F), 163(F)
cathode, 131–132
cause-and-effect (CE) matrix, 400–401, 402–403(F)
cavitation creep, 128
cementite, 222–223(F)
definition, 1
characteristics vs. defect,88
Charpy impact test, 49, 55, 58, 295(F), 297, 297(F)
Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact toughness testing, 317(F),
343(F), 513
chevron marks, 48, 53–54(F), 119(T), 367, 370(F)
chicken-wire pattern, 208
chromizing, 33
cladding, 39
clean steel, 165–166, 229
clogging, 167
coefficient of thermal expansion, 4–5
cold cracking, 36
cold forming, 44
cold joints, 163–165
cold junction, 163
cold work tools, heat treating failures of, 314–330(F&T)
characteristics, 315–317(F)
chemical composition, 314–317(F)
design-related failures, 317–319(F)
hardening temperatures, incorrect, 323–324, 325(F),
326(F)
630 / Index
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Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
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heat treating processing, 323
incorrect EDM, 321–323(F)
incorrect grinding, 319–321(F)
large (blocky) carbides, 315
retained austenite content, excessive, 324, 326–329(F),
330(F)
short or absent tempering, 329–330, 331(F), 332(F)
surface damage, 319–323(F)
tempering temperatures, incorrect, 323–324, 325(F),
326(F)
component design
design, overview, 1
design aspects
general thermal stress, 7, 32
overview, 2, 4
peak stress, 7, 32, 38
primary stress, 7, 8, 32
residual stress, 7–8
secondary stress, 7, 32
distortion, techniques for controlling, 16–18
hardening, 2
heat treat processing, introduction to, 1–2(T)
heat treated components, 8–14(F)
heat treatment design, 29–31
heat treatment failures, examples, 18–29(F)
heat treatment, modeling of, 31–33(F&T)
heat-transfer theory, 4–7(F&T)
quenching medium, 17
quenching techniques, 17–18
risk-based approach to, 40–41(F)
steel grade/condition, 14–16
tempering, 2
welded components, 33–36
contact fatigue pitting. See macropitting
contact loading, 95, 98(F), 206(F)
continuous cooling diagrams, 601–627(F)
1
/
4
Mo steel, 615(F)
carbon steels, 602–605(F)
chromium steels, 623–627(F)
Mn steels, 606–607(F)
Mn-Cr steels, 609(F)
Mn-Mo steels, 608(F)
Mn-Ni-Cr-Mo steels, 611(F)
Mn-Ni-Mo steels, 610(F)
nickel steels, 616–619(F)
Ni-Cr-Mo steels, 620–622(F)
silicon steels, 612–614(F)
continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams, 32,
255–257(F), 339–340(F)
contour hardening, 432, 470–471
corrosion
crevice, 131
definition, 131
galvanic, 131–132
pitting, 131
stress-corrosion cracking (SCC), 131
types of, 131
corrosion fatigue, 100–101(F), 118, 120
corrosive wear, 129, 138
cotter holes, 152
crack
blunts, 116
brittle, 92, 121(F), 275, 506
brittle fracture, 30
carbides, 315
circumferential, 360(F), 382
coloration, 60(F), 90
crack path, 96
crack-free welding, 507
ductile, 92, 120(F)
ductile fracture, 33
extension, 56
faces, 44(F), 50, 63(F), 64(F)
fatigue, 101, 171(F), 172(F), 173(F), 229(F), 242(F).
See also fatigue crack initiation
fatigue failures, 30
forging, 142
formation, 228
formulation, 99, 103, 143(F), 153(F)
fracture, 90–97(F), 98(F), 118
grinding, 207–208(F)
growth mechanism, 51
growth rates, 49, 50, 80
heat checking, 334(F)
intergranular path, 306(F)
lateral oxide formation, 221
longitudinal, 169, 170(F), 357, 360(F)
macrobrittle, 92
macroductile, 92
mechanical, 348(F)
metallography, 50–51
microscale crack path, 97
networks, 33
normalization, 153(F), 154(F)
nucleation, 128, 130, 159, 160, 168(F), 170, 171(F)
optical micrograph, 27(F)
order, 48
origin, 21, 25(F), 90, 162(F)
oxide filled, 104(F)
pearlitic matrix, 53
pre-existing, 116
profile, 101(F)
propagation, 301, 482, 506. See also crack propagation
quench, 21, 24(F), 25(F), 27(F), 102(F), 154(F), 411(F).
See also quench cracking
resistance, 107
resistance to propagation, measuring, 34
secondary, 27(F), 50, 101(F), 274(F), 370, 372(F), 382(F)
shank, 388, 389(F)
sharp corner, 318(F)
stage I, 78
stage II, 78
stage III, 78
surface, 482
temperature, 480, 481(F)
through-the-wall, 76
tip, 78, 80, 112, 116, 126(F), 302
transgranular, 162(F)
transgranular path, 304–305(F&T)
vertical, 64(F)
Index / 631
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Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
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crack extension, 38, 56, 118
crack initiation
carbides, 315
classifying, 118
electroplating, 45
fatigue crack initiation, 122–124(F)
fatigue cycles, 482
fatigue failures, structural features of, 78
high-temperature grain-boundary oxidation, 281,
283(F)
hot work tool steels, 344
inhibiting, 196
internal oxidation formation, 221
microcracks, 206
nitriding, 343
retard, 123
S-N curves, 482
subsurface, 93, 94(F), 229(F)
crack propagation, 124–127(F)
beach marks, 77, 78(F)
brittle fracture, 121, 175
carbides, 280
cleavage crack propagation, 509
cleavage fracture, 54(F)
definition, 482
ductile fracture, 120(F)
ductile structural materials, 506
fatigue crack propagation, 162, 170, 172(F),
173(F)
grain-boundary, 338, 341(F)
hydrogen embrittlement, 301(F)
intergranular brittle fracture, 121–122(F)
nitrided tools, 344, 348(F)
rate of, 80
resistance, 34
SCC fractures, 73
stress analyses, 116
cracking
cold, 36
delayed. See underbead cracking
fatigue, 506(F)
ferrite vein, 512–513(F)
flat, 82
HAC, 509–513(F&T)
hydrogen-induced, 36
intergranular, 59, 63(F), 96(F), 100(F), 205–206(F),
279(F)
microcracking, 183, 192, 206(F), 218
premature, 333–335, 336(F), 337(F), 338(F)
quench, 59–65(F), 273–283(F&T)
SCC, 28, 36, 70, 72–76(F&T), 77(F)
solidification, 515–517(F)
toe, 503(t), 504(t)
underbead, 507, 510–511(F)
creep, 128–129(F)
creep rupture, 76–77(F), 78(F)
critical flaw size, 49, 116
critical scuffing temperature, 230
cyclic fracture propagation, 80, 82(F)
cyclic loading, 77, 118, 122(F)
D
damage, definition, 87
damage mechanism, definition, 113
damage mode, definition, 113
decarburization, 215–217(F)
on carburized steel, 95(F)
deformation, 88–90(F)
buckling, 89
elastic, 89, 98(F)
gradual onset, 88–89(F)
plastic, 89
sudden, 88(F), 89
die-casting dies, 331, 334(F), 341, 343
dimensional stability
distortion, 200–202(F)
isothermal-transformation diagrams, 202(F)
warpage, 200, 202
discontinuities, 133, 503–505(F&T)
distortion
bending, 468
buckling, 128(F)
creep, 128–129(F)
reasons for, 127–129(F)
residual stresses, 129
techniques for controlling, 16–18
yielding, 127–128
double-frequency heating, 428
ductile crack path. See microvoid coalescence (MVC)
ductile dimples. See microvoid coalescence (MVC)
ductile fracture, 28(F), 51–53(F), 91(F), 92–93(F), 96,
120(F), 226–227
E
elastic collapse. See buckling
electrical discharge machining (EDM), 20–21
electrochemical theory, 514
electron-dispersive x-ray (EDX), 169
electroplating, 28–29, 45
embrittlement, 293–303(F&T)
definition, 38
temper (two-step embrittlement), 296
tempered martensite embrittlement, (TME), 294–296(F)
endogas, 177
energy-dispersive x-ray analysis, 113
energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS), 26
environmentally assisted failure. See corrosion
etching, 11(F), 64(F), 104(F), 210(F)
acid, 320
cooper sulfide, 303
corrosion resistance during, 337(F)
nital, 171, 174(F), 216, 324, 325(F)
retained austenite, 326, 327(F)
stain, 113
temper, 45(F), 62(F), 357(F)
Euler buckling, 30, 89
exogenous inclusions, 165, 229
exothermic sleeves, 158
632 / Index
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Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
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F
failure, definition, 40, 87
failure analysis, guidelines of
background data, collection of, 111–112
chemical analysis, 114–115
conclusions, formulation of, 117
evidence, analysis of, 116–117
failed part, preliminary examination of, 112
failure mechanism, determination of, 113–114
fracture mechanics analysis, 90, 116
macroscopic examination/analysis, 112
mechanical testing, 112
metallographic specimens, 113
microchemical analysis, 114
microscopic examination/analysis, 112–113
nondestructive testing, 112
photographic examination, 112
the report, 117–118
specimens, 112
stress analysis, 114–115
testing, 116
failure analysis, stages of
background information, collection of, 47
macroscopic examination, 50
mechanical testing, 49
metallography, 50–51(F)
microscopic examination, 50(F)
nondestructive testing, 48–49
preliminary visual examination, 47–48
specimens, collection/preservation of, 49–50
specimens, sectioning of, 50
failure mechanism, definition, 113
failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), 40, 399
failure mode, definition, 113
failures, mechanisms/causes of, 43–86(F&T), 87–109(F)
corrosion and environmental damage, 99–101(F)
deformation, 88–90(F)
design deficiencies, 43
failure analysis, 47–51(F)
fracture mechanism, 51–83(F)
fractures, 90–97(F)
heat treating process, 106–108(F)
heat treatment, poor response from, 101–103(F),
104(F)
manufacture, 44–46(F)
material issues, 43–44(F)
processing, 44–46(F)
service conditions, 46–47(F)
wear, 97–99(F)
fatigue, 77–83
fatigue crack initiation, 122–124(F)
carburized steels, 185
inhibit, 177
structural surface anomalies, 199–200
fatigue fracture, 122–127
fatigue crack initiation, 122–124(F)
fatigue crack propagation, 124–127(F)
nitrided layers, 241–253(F&T)
fatigue intrusions and extrusions, 80(F), 122(F)
fatigue resistance, 241–244(F&T)
after nitriding/nitriding treatments, 242–244(F&T)
fatigue striations
aluminum alloy, 125(F)
formation of, 80, 83(F)
interstitial-free steel, 125(F)
representative, 381(F), 390(F)
stage II crack growth, 78(F), 81(F)
typical, 354(F), 355(F), 356(F)
feeders, 158
ferrite vein cracking, 512–513(F)
fine grinding, 472–477(F)
finite element analysis (FEA), 116
fisheyes, 115, 243(F), 511–512(F)
flat cracking, 82, 83(F)
forging, failure in
case studies
avoidance of flow through, lap, and crack, 145–148(F)
crankcase underfill, 138–139(F)
spade bit, 140–142(F)
summarized, 133(T)
trim tear, 142–143(F)
tube bending, 139–140(F), 141(F)
upset forging, 143–145(F), 146(F)
discontinuities, 133
factors in analysis of cold forging failures, 134(T)
factors in analysis of hot forging failures, 135(T)
forging process design, 134–138(F&T)
forging tolerances, 135–137
lubricant performance, 138
lubrication, 137, 138
wear types, 137–138
Fourier’s first law, 5
Fourier’s second law, 4
fracture mechanics analysis, 115–116
fracture mechanism, 51–83(F)
brittle fracture, 53–59(F)
ductile fracture, 51–53(F)
fatigue, 77–83(F)
intergranular brittle fracture, 59–77(F&T)
fracture modes
brittle, 28(F)
ductile, 28(F)
grain-boundary, 300
identification chart, 119(T)
intergranular, 26, 28(F), 80, 82(F)
microvoid coalescence (MVC), 51, 52(F), 507–508(F)
TME, 65
transgranular, 80, 82(F), 296
fracture surface matching, 118
fracture toughness, 49, 55, 185, 522–523(T)
fracture toughness testing, 49
fractures
brittle, 96. See also brittle fracture
corrosion-fatigue cracks, 118, 120
cyclic loading, 118
examining, 90–93(F)
fracture modes, 19(T), 118
hydrogen embrittlement, 96. See also hydrogen
embrittlement (HEM)
Index / 633
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Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
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fractures (continued)
intergranular fracture, 96. See also intergranular brittle
fracture
macroscale brittle fracture, 91(F), 92(F)
macroscale ductile fracture, 91(F), 93(F)
macroscale features, 91–93(F)
microscale features, 95–97(F)
origin of, 118
process of, 118
river line features, 97(F)
slant, 56. See also brittle fracture
stress versus strength, 93–95(F)
stress-corrosion cracks, 118, 120
striations, 118
fretting, 97, 98(F), 130–131(F)
G
galling or seizing, 129
galvanic corrosion, 131–132
gap-by-gap hardening, 429, 430(F), 439(F), 470–471
gas bubble, 155, 167
gas holes (blowholes), 154, 155, 156
gas metal arc welding (GMAW), 511
gas porosity, 154–156(F)
glow discharge optical emission spectroscopy, 220
gouging, 119(T)
grain size, influence of, 217–219(F)
grain-boundary sliding, 128(F)
graphite products, 138
gray cast iron, 121(F)
Great Boston Molasses Disaster, 56–57(F)
grid crossings, 153(F)
grinder burn, 98
grinding
fatigue strength, 80
incorrect, 319–321(F)
manufacture and processing, 44, 45(F)
porosity, eliminating, 504
quench cracking, 62(F)
residual stresses after, 472–477(F)
stock removal, 16
surface damage, 319
surface oxidation, removing, 222
thermal defects, preventing, 208
grinding burn, definition, 207
grinding burns, 207, 208
grinding cracks, 207–208(F), 303–304(F)
grinding grains, 473–474(F)
Grossman H-values (numbers), 270(T)
H
halos (or fisheyes), 115. See also fisheyes
heat checking, 331, 334(F)
heat checking cracks, 334(F)
heat treat processing, introduction to, 1–2
heat treated steel parts
component characteristics, 104–106(F)
corrosion damage, 99–101(F)
deformation, 88–90(F)
environmental damage, 99–101(F)
fracture, 90–97(F)
heat treatment, poor response to, 101–108(F)
wear, 97–99(F)
heat treater, 89, 91, 92, 104, 106, 107–108
heat treating process
atmosphere, improper, 107–108(F)
design engineers and, 106
errors, 106–107
heat treaters and, 106
heating rate, inadequate, 107–108(F)
temperature, inadequate, 107–108(F)
time at temperature, inadequate, 107–108(F)
heat treatment
component design process, 29–30
design, 29–31
failures, examples of, 18–29(F)
heat treating errors, 18
heating errors, 18
material behavior, 30–31
modeling of, 31–33(F&T)
phase 2 design review to avoid failures, 33(T)
poor response to
component characteristics, 104–106(F)
raw material characteristics contributing to,
101–103(F), 104(F)
solid-phase transformation model, 31–32
temperature errors, 18
thermomechanical modeling, 32–33
welded components, 36–40
heat-affected zone (HAZ), 35
heat-transfer theory, 4–7(F&T)
Hertzian stresses, 97, 98(F), 206(F), 230
high-speed steels, 313–314(F)
high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) coating, 62
holes, types of, 152(F). See also individual types
hot tops, 158
hot work tools, heat treating failures of, 330–349(F&T)
characteristics of, 330–333(T), 334(F), 335(F)
chemical composition, 330–333(T), 334(F), 335(F)
cooling (slow) during quenching, 338–343(F)
heat treating procedures, inadequate, 335–337(F)
heating, excessive, 344–349(F)
incorrect hardening temperatures, 337–338, 339(F),
340(F), 341(F), 343(F)
incorrect tempering temperatures, 337–338, 339(F),
340(F), 341(F), 343(F)
nitrided tools, 343–344(F), 348(F)
premature cracking, 333–335, 336(F), 337(F),
338(F)
hydrogen embrittlement (HEM)
electroplating, 28–29, 45
intergranular brittle fracture, 59(F), 68–70(F), 71(F),
72(F), 73(F)
TE, interaction with, 301–302(F)
hydrogen traps, 508(T)
634 / Index
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hydrogen-assisted cracking (HAC)
examples
failure to pass bend tests due to hydrogen, 513(F)
ferrite vein cracking in high-heat output welds,
512–513(F)
fisheyes on fracture surface, 511–512(F)
underbead cracking, 510–511(F)
ferrite vein cracking, 512–513(F)
fisheyes, 511–512(F)
hydrogen-assisted reduced ductility, 508(F), 513(F),
514(F)
underbead cracking, 503(T), 504(F), 509–511
weld metal HAC, 511
hydrogen-assisted cracking theory, 506–509(F&T)
hydrogen-assisted reduced ductility, 508(F), 513(F), 514(F)
hydrogen-induced cracking, 36
I
impact testpieces, 121(F)
impact tests, usefulness of, 482
impact toughness testing, 49
inclusions
case studies
failure in the axle of a reduced section in a rotating
component, 170–171, 172(F&T), 173
failure of a 52100 steel axle, 171, 173–175(F)
failure of a steam turbine rotor blade, 168–170(F&T),
171(F)
categories of, 53
classifications, 165
definition, 165
noncarbide inclusions, 228–229(F)
stringer, 166, 280–281(F)
indigenous inclusions, 165
induction coils
materials for, 423–424(F)
multiple-turn induction coil, 424–425(F)
types of, 423
induction hardening
fatigue strength, 481–485(F&T)
fine grinding, 472–477(F)
induction heating, 420–422(F), 440–444(F),
444–449(F&T)
induction surface heating. See induction surface heating
induction surface-hardened layer, 477–481(F&T)
machine parts, 422–432(F), 485–491(F&T)
magnetic flux concentrators, 437–440(F)
overview, 417–419
quenching systems for, 449–452(F)
steels, 419–420(F&T)
stresses/residual stresses, time variation of, 452–466(F)
surface hardening, 421–422, 466–472(F)
induction heating
coils for, 423(F)
definition, 398
features of, 420–422(F)
gear wheels, 429, 430(F), 431(F)
Jominy curves, 4150 steel, 492, 493(F)
machine parts, 440–444(F)
power supplies, 421
rotation velocities, 452
supervising, 456(F)
temperature cycles, 456–457(F), 458(F)
time-temperature dependence in, 444–449(F&T)
use of, 417
induction scanning, 426, 427(F)
induction surface hardening
advantages of, 421–422
gears, 491–497(F)
residual stresses, 472–477(F)
workpiece distortion in, 466–472(F)
induction surface heating, 430(F), 432–437(F), 442(F), 456,
457(F), 465(F), 471(F)
induction surface-hardened layer, 444, 477–481(F&T)
inhomogeneity, 462, 463(F), 479
Instron TT-DM machine, 242
intergranular brittle fracture
causes of, 59, 279. See also individual causes
creep process and, 128(F)
creep rupture, 76–77(F), 78(F)
hydrogen embrittlement, 59(F), 68–70(F), 71(F), 72(F),
73(F)
liquid metal embrittlement, 66–67(F&T)
quench cracking, 59–65(F)
SAE 3161, 122(F)
solid metal embrittlement, 67–68(F&T), 69(F)
stress-corrosion cracking (SCC), 70, 72–76(F&T), 77(F)
temper embrittlement, 65–66(F)
TME and, 65(F), 295–296
intergranular cracking, 59, 63(F), 96(F), 100(F), 205–206(F),
279(F)
interlath cleavage, 296
internal oxidation, 219–222(F)
internal porosity, 158–159(F)
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 493
ion vapor-deposited (IVD), 362, 364(F), 365, 367(F), 369(F)
iron-carbon equilibrium diagram, 585(F)
isothermal diagrams
carbon steels, 588–592(F)
chromium steels, 597(F), 599(F)
chromium-molybdenum steels, 593–594(F)
nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels, 598(F)
nickel-molybdenum steels, 596(F)
Ni-Cr-Mo steels, 595(F)
isothermal-transformation diagrams. See time-temperature
transformation (TTT) diagrams
J
jig-bore grinding, 2(F), 20
“job shop” heat treater, 87
Jominy distance (J-distance), 270
L
lap, definition, 145–146, 277
lath martensite, 187, 188(F)
Index / 635
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© 2008 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
www.asminternational.org