Canale L.C.F., Mesquita R.A., Totten G.E. Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components
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Failure Analysis of
Heat Treated Steel Components
L.C.F. Canale
R.A. Mesquita
G.E. Totten
ASM International
Õ
Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org
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© 2008 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
www.asminternational.org
Copyright # 2008
by
ASM International
Õ
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© 2008 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
www.asminternational.org
This book is dedicated to our families, without whose continued
support the completion of this work would not have been possible:
My husband, Antonio Carlos Canale,
and my children, Amanda, Sara, and Bruno
L.C.F.C.
To my lovely wife, Carla Mesquita, and my dear son, Rafael
R.A.M.
My wife, Alice
G.E.T.
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Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
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Contents
Preface ..................................... ........................................................................................ ix
Component Design ............................................................................................................ 1
Mario Solari, Consul tores de Tecnologı
´
a e Ingenı
´
era SRL
Pablo Bilmes, Universidad Nacional de La Plata
Introduction to Heat Treat Processing .................................................................................. 1
Important Design Aspects ..................................................................................................... 2
Techniques for Controlling Distortion ................................................................................ 16
Examples of Failure s due to Heat Treatment ...................................................................... 18
Heat Treatment Design ........................................................................................................ 29
Modeling of Heat Treatment ............................................................................................... 31
Failure Aspects of Welded Components ............................................................................. 33
Heat Treatment Procedures Applied to Welded Components ............................................ 36
The Risk-Based Approach and Heat Treatments ................................................................ 40
Overview of the Mechanisms of Failure in Heat Treated Steel Components .................... 43
Scott MacKenzie, Houghton International, Inc.
General Sources of Failure .............................................................................. .................... 43
General Practice Conducting a Failure Analys is ............................................ .................... 47
Determination of the Fractur e Mechanism ..................................................... .................... 51
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 83
Mechanisms and Causes of Failures in Heat Tr eated Steel Parts ....................................... 87
Debbie Aliya, Aliya Analytical, Inc.
Types of Damage and Failure ............................................................................................. 88
Factors Contributing to Poor Response from Heat Treatment ......................................... 101
Concluding Comments ...................................................................................................... 108
General Aspects of Failure Analysis ............................................................................... 111
Waldek Wladimir Bose-Filho, Universidade de Sa
˜
o Paulo
Jose
´
Ricardo Tarpani, Universidade de Sa
˜
o Paulo
Marcelo Tadeu Milan, Institut o de Materiais Tecnolo
´
gicos do Brasil Ltda.
General Guidelines of Failure Analysis ............................................................................ 111
Fracture .............................................................................................................................. 118
Distortion ........................................................................................................................... 127
Wear-Assisted Failure ....................................................................................................... 129
Environmentally Assisted Failure ..................................................................................... 131
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v
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Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
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Failure in Steel Forging .................................................................................................. 133
Md. Maniruzzaman, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Charlie Gure, Forging Consultant
Stephen R. Crosby, The Stanely Works
Richard D. Sisson, Jr., Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Forging Process Design ..................................................................................................... 134
Case Studies ....................................................................................................................... 138
Failures from the Casting Process .............................................................. .................... 151
Omar Maluf, Instituto de Materiais Tecnolo
´
gicos do Brasil Ltda.
Luciana Sgarbi Rossino, Instituto de Materiais Tecnolo
´
gicos do Brasil Ltda.
Camilo Bento Carletti, Centro de Caracterizac¸a
˜
o e Desenvolvime nto de Materiais
Celso Roberto Ribeiro, Centro de Caracterizac¸a
˜
o e Desenvolvimento de Materiais
Clever Ricardo Chinaglia, Centro de Caracterizac¸a
˜
o e Desenvolvimento de Materiais
Jose
´
Eduardo Mya, Centro de Caracterizac¸a
˜
o e Desenvolvimento de Materiais
Failures due to Improper Cast Design ............................................................................... 151
Effects due to Porosity ........................ .............................................................................. 154
Effects due to Decarburization during Microfusion ......................................................... 162
Effects due to Cold Joints ................................................................................................. 163
Inclusions ........................................................................................................................... 165
Sources of Failures in Carburized and Carbonitrided Components ................................ 177
Malgorzata Przylecka, Poznan
´
University of Technology
Wojciech Ge˛stwa, Poznan
´
University of Technology
L.C.F. Canale, Universidade de Sa
˜
o Paulo
Xin Ya o, Portland State University
G.E. Totten, Associac¸a
˜
o Instituto Internacional de Cie
ˆ
ncia and Portland State University
Design ................................................................................................................................ 179
Steel Selection and Hardenability ..................................................................................... 181
Residual Stress ................................................................................................................... 196
Dimensional Stability ........................................................................................... ............. 200
Quenching and Grinding Cracks ....................................................................................... 204
Insufficient Case Hardness and Improper Core Hardness ................................................ 209
Influence of Surface Carbon Content ................................................................................ 211
Influence of Grain Size ...................................................................................................... 217
Internal Oxidation .............................................................................................................. 219
Carbides and Carbide Structure ........................................................................................ 222
Noncarbide Inclusions ....................................................................................................... 228
Micropiting ........................................................................................................................ 230
Contact Fatigue Piting (Macropiting) ............................................................................... 230
Case Crushing .................................................................................................................... 231
Pitting Corrosion ............................................................................................................... 232
Partial Melting ................................................................................................................... 233
Fatigue Fracture of Nitrided Layers ............................................................................... 241
Aleksander Nakonieczny, Institute of Precision Mechanics
Fatigue Resistance ............................................................................................................. 241
Fatigue Evaluation of Nitrided Steels ............................................................................... 244
Fatigue Property Characteristics after Carbonitriding ...................................................... 246
Summary ................................................................................................ ............................ 250
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vi
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Steel Heat Treatment Failures due to Quenching ........................................................... 255
L.C.F. Canale, Universidade de Sa
˜
o Paulo
G.E. Totten, Associac¸a
˜
o Instituto Internacional de Cie
ˆ
ncia and Portland State University
Phase Transformation During Heating and Quenching .................................................... 255
Effect of Material s and Quench Process Design on Distortion ........................................ 263
Stress Raisers and Their Role in Quench Cracking .......................................................... 272
Case Studies in Quench Cracking ..................................................................................... 273
Steel Failures due to Tempering and Isot hermal Heat Treatment ................................... 285
Jan Vatavuk, Universidade Mackenzie
L.C.F. Canale, Universidade de Sa
˜
o Paulo
Martensite .......................................................................................................................... 285
Tempering .......................................................................................................................... 289
Embrittlement .................................................................................................................... 293
Case Studies ....................................................................................................................... 303
Failure Analysis in Tool Steels ....................................................................................... 311
Rafael A. Mesquita, Villares Metals
Celso Antonio Barbosa, Vil lares Metals
Classification of Tool Steels .............................................................................................. 311
Heat Treating Failures of Cold Work Tools ..................................................................... 314
Heat Treating Failures of Hot Work Tools ....................................................................... 330
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 349
Case Studies of Steel Component Failures in Aerospace Applications ............................ 351
Scott MacKenzie, Houghton International, Inc.
Failure Analysis of a Catapult Holdback Bar ................................................................... 351
Cracking in a Main Landing Gear Attach Pin .................................................................. 354
MLG Linear Actuating Rod and Cylinder ........................................................................ 355
Failure Analysis of AISI 420 Stainless Steel Roll Pin .................................... .................. 359
Failure Analysis of a Main Landing Gear Lever .............................................................. 362
Failure Analysis of an Inboard Flap Hinge Bolt ............................................................... 364
Failure Analysis of a Nose Landing Gear Piston Axle ..................................................... 367
Multiple-Leg Aircraft-Handling Sling .............................................................................. 372
Failure Analysis of an Aircraft Hoist Sling during Static Test ......................................... 373
Failure Analysis of an Internal Spur Gear ................... ..................................................... 375
Main Landing Gear Axle ................................................................................................... 378
Nondestructive Testing and Failure Analysis of
Fin Attach Bolts after Full-Scale Fatigue Testing ........................................................ 380
Failure Analysis of Powder Metal Steel Components ..................................................... 395
S. Ashok, Sundram Fasteners Ltd.
Sundar Sriram, Sundram Fasteners Ltd.
Powder Metallurgy Process ............................................................................................... 395
Case Hardening ................................................................................................................. 397
Failure Analysis Techniques ...................................................................... ....................... 399
Case Studies of PM Steel Failures .................................................................................... 401
Induction Hardening ..................................................................................................... 417
Janez Grum, University of Ljubljana
Steels for Surface Hardening ............................................................................................. 419
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vii
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Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
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Main Features of Induction Heating ................................................................................. 420
Induction Hardening of Machine Parts ............................................................................. 422
Magnetic Flux Con centrators ............................................................................................ 437
Conditions in Induction Heating and Quenching of Machine Parts ................................. 440
Time-Temperature Dependence in Induction Heating ..................................................... 444
Quenching Systems for Induction Hardening ................................................................... 449
Time Variation of Stresses and Residual Stresses ............................................................ 452
Workpiece Distortion in Induction Surface Hardening .................................................... 466
Residual Stresses after Induction Surface Hardening and Finish Grinding ..................... 472
Hardness Profiles in the Induction Surface-Hardened Layer ............................................ 477
Fatigue Strength of Materials ............................................................................................ 481
Stress Profiles in Machine Parts in the Loaded State ........................................................ 485
Input and Output Control of Steel for Induction Surface Hardening of Gears ................ 491
Failure Analysis of Steel Welds .................................................... .................................. 503
J.H. Devletian, Portland State Uni versity
D. Van Dyke, MEI-Charlton, Inc.
Discontinuities in Steel Welds .......................................................................................... 503
Fatigue of Welded Joints ............... .................................................................................... 505
Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking Theory ................................................................................ 506
Types of Hydrogen -Assisted Cracking ............................................................................. 509
Stress-Corrosion Cracking of Steel ................................................................................... 513
Solidification Cracking of Steel ........................................................................................ 515
Appendix 1: Metric Conversion Guide .......................................................................... 521
Appendix 2: Temperature Conversion Table .................................................................. 525
Appendix 3: Steel Hardness Conversions ............................ ........................................... 529
Appendix 4: Austenitizing Temperatures for Steels ........................................................ 537
Appendix 5: Temper Colors for Steels ..................... ................................... .................... 539
Appendix 6: Physical Properties of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ................................... 541
Appendix 7: AISI to Non-AISI Steel Cross Reference ..................................................... 551
Appendix 8: Non-AISI to AISI Steel Cross Reference ..................................................... 563
Appendix 9: Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram ............................................................. 585
Appendix 10: Isothermal Diagrams of Selected Steels ................................................... 587
Appendix 11: Continuous Cooling Diagram s of Selected Steels ..................... ................ 601
Index ............................................................................................................................. 629
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viii
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Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)
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Preface
Material failures can lead to many potentially disasterous consequences, including poor product
quality, necessary repair or component or equipment replacement, production downtime losses,
environmental impact, and even loss of life. Furthermore, failures may arise from not one but various
causes, including design, material composition, and, in the case of metals such as steel, improper
thermal processing. Therefore, when failures do occur, it is critically necessary to not only identify
these failures but also to determine and correct their root cause. This is a primary objective of this
work.
There are many books, journals, and other references that focus on various aspects of failure
analysis. However, there are relatively few that focus on steel failures arising during thermal pro-
cessing, such as forg ing, casting, heat treatment, welding, and others. A second objective of this book
is to provide a reasonably thorough reference detailing potential failures that may occur during
thermal processing and the identification of their root cause, even if it is not specifically the thermal
process being considered.
An important feature of Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components is that it not only
discusses various causes of a failure and its identification but also integrates this discussion with the
metallurgy of the process, thus providing one comprehensive resource. This book was developed as a
reference source for use by designers, practicing metallurgists, mechanical and materials engineers,
quality-control technicians, and heat treaters. This book also will serve as an important textbook for
various advanced undergraduate and graduate courses on either failure analysis or thermal processing
of steel.
The editors are indebted to the invaluable guidance of many persons in the development and
production of this text, including Prof. George Krauss (Colorado School of Mines), George Vander
Voort (Buehler Ltd., USA), N. Gopinath and V. Raghunathan (Fluidtherm Technology P. Ltd.), Ross
Blackwood (deceased), Larry Jarvis (Tenaxol Inc.), and many others. In addition, the editors are most
appreciative of Steve Lampman for his continued patience, guidance, and assistance during the
various stages of the preparation of this text. The editors are especially grateful for the support of the
chapter authors for the diligence, dedication, and patience involved in their vital contributions to this
work. Most of all, the editors are especially appreciative of the support and sacrifices made by their
spouses, Antonio Canale, Carla Mesquita, and Alice Totten, without which the preparation of this
book would not have been possible. We also express our gratitude to Villares Metals S.A. for their
continued and vital assistance and generosity throughout this project.
Lauralice C.F. Canale, Ph.D.
Sao Car los, SP, Brazil
Rafael Agnelli Mesquita
Sumare, SP, Brazil
George E. Totten, Ph.D., FASM
Seattle, WA, USA
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ix
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obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having
technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are
outside of ASM's control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this
information. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to
specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended.
Nothing contained in this publication shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale,
use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or
system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this
publication shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent,
copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement.
Component Design
Mario Solari, CTI Consultores de Tecnologı´a e Ingenierı´a SRL
Pablo Bilmes, Universidad Nacional de La Plata
DESIGN involves different creative aspects:
planning, development, procedures, availability,
and fitness concerning the materials and pro-
cesses used to manufacture the component.
Design is an iterative process, often based on
experience, to provide an assessment of the
performance of a component for a certain period
of time of expected or intended service life. The
design process culminates in a technical speci-
fication for the part or system and suitable
manufacturing processes. Another obvious aim
of design is to prevent failures throughout the
component lifetime cycle and avoid situations
resulting in severe failure.
Heat treating achieves the desired changes in
structure and properties, and various types of
heat treatments may be employed to meet design
requirements for mechanical strength, corro-
sion, wear, and so on. Heat treatments include
stress relieving, austenitizing, normalizing,
annealing, quenching, and tempering (Ref 1).
Heat treating may also involve chemical or
additional physical processes. A systematic
procedure for minimizing risks involved in heat
treated steel components requires a combination
of metallurgical failure analysis and fitness for
service with respect to safety and reliability
based on risk analysis. The effects of steel heat
treatment may include (Ref 1):
Control of microstructure formation
Increase of strength, toughness, or perhaps
creep resistance
Relief of residual stresses and prevention of
cracking
Control of hardness (and softness)
Improvement of machinability
Improvement of corrosion resistance or wear
resistance
Introduction to Heat Treat Processing
Material behavior related to heat treatment
can be analyzed by developing models that
involve a complex interrelationship of variables
associated with the material, manufacturing
processes, and service conditions (Ref 2).
The ability of ferrous materials to develop
required properties through heat treatment is
a broad concept that refers both to the ease
with which a material may be heat treated
and the resulting in-service fitness of the com-
ponent.
The iron allotropic transformation between
more densely packed face-centered cubic iron,
nonmagnetic gamma (c) phase designated as
austenite, and the less densely packed body-
centered cubic iron, alpha (a) phase designated
as ferrite, is the basis for heat treatment of steels.
Austenite can dissolve up to approximately
2.0 wt% C and in most steels is not stable at
low temperature. On the other hand, the inter-
stitial sites in ferrite are much smaller than in
austenite; therefore, ferrite can only dissolve
very small concentrations of carbon (0.025 wt%
maximum) and is relatively soft and stable at
room temperature.
The iron-carbon phase diagram shows the
compositional limits of the different transfor-
mational phases formed by a steel alloy that
exist during heating or cooling as a function
of temperature. In hypoeutectoid steels (those
with 50.80 wt% C), upon cooling two different
phases can exist, ferrite and austenite, each con-
taining different amounts of carbon. Upon fur-
ther cooling, the microstructure of these steels
exhibits ferrite grains in a pearlite island. Pearlite
is a metastable microstructure formed during
austenite decomposition. The pearlite structure
is an aggregate consisting of alternating lamellae
of ferrite and cementite that is formed on slow
cooling during the eutectoid reaction. Cementite
is a very hard and brittle compound of iron
and carbon (Fe
3
C). Depending on the thermal
history, cementite will appear as lamellae (with
ferrite), spheroids, or globules in a ferritic
matrix.
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Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components
L.C.F. Canale, R.A. Mesquita, and G.E. Totten, editors, p 1-42
DOI: 10.1361/faht2008p001
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