Canale L.C.F., Mesquita R.A., Totten G.E. Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

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Liberty ships, 54

linear thermal expansion, 5(T), 541(T), 544(T)

liquid metal embrittlement (LME), 66–67(F&T), 302–303(T)

liquid shrinkage, 157(F)

liquidation temperature, deﬁnition, 233(T)

low-alloy steels

coefﬁcients of linear thermal expansion, 541–543(T)

cold forging, strain-limiting criteria for, 142(F)

core microstructure, 210, 212(F)

embrittlement, 302(T)

HAZ maximum hardness, 35–36

heat capacity, summary of, 548–549(T)

heat treatment procedures, 36–37

linear thermal expansion, 5(T)

quench age embrittlement, 59

SCC and, 36, 73, 74(T)

speciﬁc heats, 549–550(T)

thermal conductivities, 547(T)

thermal conductivity, summary of, 545–546(T)

thermal expansion, summary of, 544–545(T)

thermal hardening, 418

lower bainite, 2, 210(F), 270, 292, 299, 403(F)

lubricant performance, 138

lubrication

graphite products, 138

inadequate, 46–47(F)

micropitting, 230

wear and, 137–138(F)

machine parts, induction hardening of

carburized parts, residual stresses in, 489–491(F&T)

contour hardening, 432

double-frequency heating, 428

gap-by-gap, 429, 430(F), 439(F), 470–471

gear wheels, 427–432(F), 439(F)

induction scanning, 426, 427(F)

progressive hardening, 426–427(F)

quenching, 442–444(F)

quenching techniques, 425–426(F)

scan-hardening process, 425(F)

single-shot induction hardening, 422, 423, 424(F), 427,

428(F), 440(F), 496

single-shot induction heating, 424(F), 448(F)

stress proﬁles, 485–491(F&T)

tooth-by-tooth, 430(F), 439(F)

tooth-gap hardening, 431–432(F)

macroinclusions, formation of, 166–167

macropitting, 230–231(F)

macroscale brittle fracture, 91(F), 92(F)

magnetic ﬂux concentrators, 437–440(F)

martempering, 17–18, 60

martensite, 285–289(F)

deﬁnition, 2

diffusionless process, 286

morphology of, 187(F)

slipped martensite, 287

tempered martensite, 289

mechanical cracks, 348(F)

mechanism and mode, difference between, 113–114

mechanism of failure, deﬁnition, 87

metric conversion guide

base SI units, 521(T)

conversion factors, 522–523(T)

derived SI units, 521–522(T)

supplementary SI units, 521(T)

microchemical analysis, 114

microcracking, 183, 192, 206(F), 218

microinclusions, formation of, 167–168(T)

micropitting, 230

microscale fracture features, 95–97(F)

microscopic examination, 50(F), 112–113

microvoid coalescence (MVC), 96

modulus of elasticity, 89, 529

National Safety Transportation Board, 75

nil-ductility temperature (NDT), 55–56

niobium (formerly columbium), 39, 314

nitrided layers, fatigue fracture of

carbonitriding, 246–250(F&T)

fatigue evaluation, 244–246(F&T), 247(F&T)

fatigue resistance, 241–244(F&T)

nitrided steels, 244–246(F&T), 247(F&T)

nitrocarburizing, 33

node dislocation, 152, 153(F)

non-AISI to AISI steel cross reference, 563–583(T)

noncarbide inclusions, 228–229(F)

nondestructive testing, 48–49

dye-penetrant method, 48

eddy-current methods, 48

magnetic particle inspection, 48

ultrasonic testing (UT), 48–49

North American Die Casting Association (NADCA),

336–337

notch, 12(F), 55, 56, 70(F), 179(F), 266(F)

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA),

40–41

overcarbonitriding, 211, 213, 214(F), 215(F)

overcarburizing, 211, 213, 214(F), 215(F)

pancake (ﬂattened disc), forging, 144(F)

Paris regime, 126–127(F)

partial melting, 233–234(T)

part-way downs, 146–147

passing hole, 152(F)

pearlite

crack/void formation, 53

decarburization on carburized steel, 95(F)

deﬁnition, 1

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phase transformations, 255–263(F&T)

CCT diagrams, 255–257(F)

distortion mechanism, 261

metallurgical crystal structure, 257(F), 258(F)

residual stresses, relief of, 263(F)

TTT diagrams, 255, 256(F)

volume changes during, 261–263(F)

volumetric change upon quenching, 257–261(F&T),

262(F)

phosphorus, 55, 65, 115, 295–296, 297–298

phosphorus segregation, 185, 295–296, 297–298

pinholes, 154, 155–156(F), 404–405(F), 406(F)

pitting, deﬁnition, 113–114

pitting corrosion, 232–233(F)

plastic blunting process, 78, 80

plastic deformation

avoiding, 8, 30

brittle fracture and, 34, 53, 54(F), 120

buckling and, 128

creep and, 128

ductile fracture and, 51, 96, 120

formation of, 7, 52, 286–287, 331, 446

fracture surface matching, 118

shot peening and, 199(F)

plastic mold steels, 313(F)

plate martensite, 187, 188(F)

polishing, 51, 113, 313(F), 390(F), 482

porosity

blowholes, treating, 156

casting component feeding, 159

effects due to, 154–162(F), 163(F)

gas, 154–156(F)

internal, from nucleation, 158–159

internal, from the surface, 158, 159(F)

pinholes, treating, 156

shrinkage pores, 156–158(F)

postweld heat treatment (PWHT), 37

powder metal steel components

case hardening

carbonitriding, 397–398(F)

carburizing, 397

induction hardening, 398(T)

steam treatment, 398–399(F)

deﬁnition, 395, 396(F)

failure analysis techniques, 399–401(F&T)

CE matrix, 400–401, 402–403(F)

failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), 399

process maps, 400, 401(T)

steps, 400(F)

tools, 400(F)

powder metallurgy process, 395–396, 397(F)

powder metal steel failures, case studies

blistered sintered products, 405–406

cracks after induction hardening, 409–410(F)

cracks after quenching, 410–411(F)

dimensional change in carbonitriding, 411, 412(F)

dimensional change in steam treatment, 414(F),

415(F)

dimensional instability during shrink ﬁtting, 406–407

fracture of steam-treated part, 407–408(F)

low breaking load after carbonitriding, 413–414(F)

low core hardness after steam treatment, 415

low surface hardness after carbonitriding, 411–412(F)

oxidation after sintering, 408–409(F)

pinholes after sintering, 404–405(F), 406(F)

variation in bore diameter after heat treatment,

412–413

wear after sinter hardening, 401, 403–404(F)

wear after sintering, 407(F), 408(F)

powder metallurgy process

blending, 396

compaction, 396

powder production, 395–396

sintering, 397

progressive hardening, 420, 426, 427(F), 446, 455, 469,

496. See also gap-by-gap hardening

“puzzle piece” carbide, 108(F)

quench cracking, 59–65(F)

deﬁnition, 59–60

intergranular fracture, 96

localized overheating, 62

martempering, 60

mitigation of, 60

stress raisers role in, 272–273

quench cracking, case studies

as-quenched 4340 steel, 273–274(F)

cracking of 4140 block forging after quenching and

tempering, 274–275(F&T)

decarburization and oxidized grain boundary,

281–283(F)

network carbides and coarse grain size, 278–280(F)

presence of a seam defect, 276(F)

presence of chemical segregation, 278, 279(F)

presence of slag inclusions and a lap

defect, 276–278(F&T)

presence of stringer inclusions and chemical

segregation, 280–281(F&T)

use of improper steel alloy and presence of voids in a steel

brazed joint, 275–276(F&T)

quench nonuniformity, 189

quenching

carbonitrided components, 191

carburized components, 185, 187–191

component design, 263–265(F), 266(F&T)

contamination, 190

dry die quenching, 18

failures due to, 255–284(F&T)

immersion quenching, 451

induction hardening, 449–452(F)

martempering, 17–18

phase transformations, 255–263(F&T)

press quenching, 18

quench nonuniformity, 189

quenchant nonuniformity, 271–272(F)

quenchant selection, 270–271(T)

retained austenite, 191–196(F&T)

Index / 637

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quenching (continued)

slack quenching, 278

spray quenching, 430(F), 444(F), 451–452

steel grade/condition, 266–270(F&T)

atmosphere control, 269

component support/loading, 267(F), 268(F)

heating control, 269

machining, 267

retained austenite, 269–270(T)

surface condition, 267–269(F&T)

quenching cracks, 204–207(F), 341

ratchet mark, deﬁnition, 505–506

ratchet marks, 126(F), 388(F), 389(F), 506(F)

recognized and generally accepted good engineering practice

(RAGAGEP), 40

rehardening burn, 207

reoxidation, 166–167

residual stresses, 196–200(F&T), 472–477(F)

retained austenite, 191–196(F&T), 269–270(T)

risers, 158

river patterns, 54, 55(F), 97(F), 376(F)

rolling, 130

hot rolling, 89

surface rolling, 122, 123(F), 124

scanning electron microscope (SEM), 21, 50(F)

shank crack, 388, 389(F)

sharp asperity, 130(F)

shear lip, 50, 51, 118, 119(T), 273

Sherlock Holmes rule, 114

shot blasting, 198

shot peening, 198–199(F), 200(T)

shrinkage pores, 159, 160(F)

examples: failure analysis of a mill gear, 159–161(F&T),

161–162(F), 163(F), 164(F&T)

silicon, 56, 183, 223, 293, 296, 297(F), 334

siliconizing, 33

single-shot induction hardening, 422, 423, 424(F), 427,

428(F), 440(F), 496

single-shot induction heating, 424(F), 448(F)

sintering

ferrous PM parts, 397

oxidation after, 408–409(F)

pinholes after, 404–405, 406(F)

PM process map, 401(T), 402(F)

wear after, 407, 408(F)

slack quenching, 278

slant fracture, 56, 505

sliding, 56, 128(F), 129, 130(F), 195, 196(F), 199

slip band extrusions, 78, 80(F)

slip band intrusions, 78, 80(F), 122

Smith curve, 247–248, 250(F)

soft skin layers, 199–200

softening replica tape, 49–50

solid metal embrittlement, 67–68(F&T), 69(F)

solid shrinkage, 158

solidiﬁcation cracking, 515–517(F)

solidiﬁcation shrinkage, 157–158(F)

solid-phase transformation model, 31–32

spalling failure, 20(F), 23(F), 138, 231, 322(F), 323

spheroidization, 107(F)

spray quenching, 430(F), 444(F), 451–452

stainless steels, PWHT of, 37–40

austenitic chromium-nickel, 38–39

chromium steels, 37

duplex austenitic-ferritic chromium-nickel, 39–40

fully austenitic, 39

martensitic, 38

soft martensitic, 38

stabilized, 39

unstabilized austenitic, 39

static fatigue test, 301

static tests, 301

steady-state creep rate, 77, 139

steel hardness conversions

approximate equivalent hardness numbers for Brinell

hardness numbers for steel, 532–533(T)

approximate equivalent hardness numbers for

steel, 535(F)

approximate equivalent hardness numbers for Vickers

(diamond pyramid) hardness numbers for steel,

533–534(T)

approximate Rockwell B hardness conversion numbers for

nonaustenitic steels, 530(T)

approximate Rockwell C hardness conversion numbers for

nonaustenitic steels, 531(T)

examples of published hardness conversion equations,

529(T)

steel susceptibility ratio, 285

steel welds, failure analysis of

discontinuities, 503–505(F&T)

examples

fatigue cracking of welded pipe ﬂange, 506(F)

lack of penetration, 505

lack of side-wall fusion, 505

porosity in weld metal, 504, 505(F)

SCC of a weld, 514–515(F)

solidiﬁcation cracking of steel weld, 516(F), 517(F)

fatigue, 505–506(F)

hydrogen-assisted cracking (HAC), 509–513(F&T)

hydrogen-assisted cracking theory, 506–509(F&T)

solidiﬁcation cracking, 515–517(F)

stress-corrosion cracking (SCC), 513–515(F)

steels

alloyed, tempering, 293, 294(F&T), 295(F)

carbon. See carbon steels

carbon, isothermal diagrams

1019, 588(F)

1030, 589(F)

1050, 590(F)

1060, 591(F)

1080, 592(F)

638 / Index

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Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Component (#05113G)

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carbon steels with nominal carbon contents

0.18 C (1017–1022), 602(F)

0.44 C (1039–1046), 603(F)

0.86 C (1080–1090), 604(F)

0.96 C (1090–1095), 605(F)

carburized. See carburized steels

chromium, 37–39

1 Cr (5140), 624(F)

1 Cr V, (6150), 626(F)

Cr Mo (4140–4142), 625(F)

Cr Al Mo, 627(F)

Cr (5060) (5155–5160), 623(F)

5160, 597(F)

52100, 599(F)

chromium-molybdenum

4130, 593(F)

4140, 594(F)

clean, 165–166, 229

cold work tool, 312(F)

continuous cooling diagrams, 601–627(F)

high-speed, 313–314

hot work tool, 312–313(F)

induction hardening, 419–420(F&T)

interstitial-free, 124, 125(F)

isothermal diagrams, 587–599(F)

low-alloy steels. See low-alloy steels

Mn+S (1139), 607(F)

Mn (1547) (1345), 606(F)

Mn-Cr, 1

Mn Cr, 609(F)

Mn-Mo, 1

Mn Mo, 608(F)

Mn-Ni-Cr-Mo, 1

Mn Ni Cr Mo, 611(F)

Mn-Ni-Mo, 1

Mn Ni Mo, 610(F)

Mo,

Mo (4037–4042), 615(F)

nickel

Ni Cr Mo (8622–8627) (8720) (8822), 620(F)

Ni Cr, 619(F)

Ni Cr Mo, 621(F)

Ni Mn, 617(F)

Ni Mo, 618(F)

Ni, 616(F)

Ni Cr Mo (9310), 622(F)

nickel-chromium-molybdenum, 8620, 598(F)

nickel-molybdenum, 4640, 596(F)

Ni-Cr-Mo, 4340, 595(F)

nitrided, 244–246(F&T), 247(F&T)

plastic mold, 313(F)

as quenched 4340, 273–274(F)

silicon

Si Mn, 612(F)

2 Si Cr Mo, 614

Si Cr, 613(F)

tool, 311–314(F&T), 314–330(F&T)

stress

analysis, 115–116

concentrations, 32–33, 45, 46(F), 98(F)

machine parts, 485–491(F&T)

versus strength, 93–95(F)

types of, 7–8

stress raisers, 179(F), 272–273

stress-corrosion cracking (SCC), 28

austenitic stainless steels, 36

intergranular brittle fracture, 70, 72–76(F&T), 77(F)

stress-sorption theory, 514

striations, 78, 80, 97, 124, 506. See also fatigue striations

stringer inclusion, 166, 280–281(F)

stringers, 25(F), 103(F), 280, 281(F)

structural ﬂaw, 241

subcritical annealing, 16, 266–267

sudden onset deformation, 89

sulﬁdizing, 33

superposition principle, 127

surface (or skin) effect, 440

surface carbon content

decarburization, 213, 215–217(F)

overcarbonitriding, 211, 213, 214(F), 215(F)

overcarburizing, 211, 213, 214(F), 215(F)

surface fatigue wear, 138

surface integrity, 418, 475

surface rolling, 122, 123(F), 124

surface structure anomalies, 199–200

Systeme International d’Unite

s (SI), 521

TBE, 299

temper colors for steels

color chart (back cover)

time-temperature effect, 539, 540(F)

temper embrittlement (TE), 296–299(F)

HEM, interaction with, 301–302(F)

LME, interaction with, 302–303(T)

mechanical tests for, 299–301(F&T)

mechanism of, 65–66(F)

molybdenum, effect on, 297–298

phosphorus, effect on, 297–298

vanadium, effect on, 298

welded components, 34–35

temperature conversion table, 525–528

tempered martensite embrittlement, (TME), 65(F),

294–296(F)

tempering

alloyed steels, 293, 294(F&T), 295(F)

case study: grinding cracks, 303–304(F)

case study: transgranular and intergranular crack path,

304–305(F&T), 306(F)

colors of tempering heats, 289(T)

embrittlement, 293–303(F&T)

heating times, 290(T)

martensite, 285–289(F)

mechanical properties, effect on, 289–290(F), 291(F),

292(F)

reactions, 290–291

stages, 291–293(F)

tempering embrittlement, 285

tempering resistance, 36(F), 313, 331, 334, 338, 339

tensile, deﬁnition, 92

thermal expansion

austenite versus ferrite, 5

Index / 639

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thermal expansion (continued)

austenitic stainless steels, 39

carbon and low-alloy steels, speciﬁc heats of, 549–550(T)

coefﬁcients of, 4–5, 6(F), 9(F), 32

coefﬁcients of linear thermal expansion for carbon and

low-alloy steels, 541–543(T)

ferrous materials, 5(T)

heat capacity, summary of, 548–549(T)

induced strain, 7

residual stress, inﬂuence on, 5, 32

summary of, 544–545(T)

thermal conductivities of carbon and low-alloy steels,

547(T)

thermal conductivity, summary of, 545–546(T)

thermal shock, 5–6(T), 32

thermochemical modeling, 33

thermomechanical modeling, 32–33

through hardening, 395, 396, 413, 421, 425(F),

442(F), 490

through-hardened, 413(F), 484, 485(F)

time-temperature transformation (TTT) diagrams, 2, 32,

202(F), 255, 256(F)

time-temperature-austenitizing (TTA) diagram, 432(F),

433(F)

toe cracking, 503(T), 504(F)

tool steels, failure analysis in

classiﬁcation of, 311–314(F&T)

cold work, 312(F)

cold work tools, 314–330(F&T)

high-speed steels, 313–314(F)

hot work, 312–313(F)

hot work tools, 330–349(F&T)

plastic mold steels, 313(F)

tooth-by-tooth induction hardening, 430(F), 439(F)

tooth-gap hardening, 431–432(F)

torsional fatigue, 177, 483

total oxidation potential (TOP), 221(F)

total-life fatigue analysis, 177

transition temperature, 35, 55, 66, 67(F)

transmission electron microscopy, 65, 220, 288

tribological systems, 475

twinning density, 288

two-step embrittlement, 296

ultrasonic testing (UT), 512

underbead cracking, 507, 510–511(F)

undercut, 20(F), 46(F), 503(T)

undercutting, 45–46(F)

unnotched impact testing, 337

upper bainite, 2, 270, 306(F), 403(F)

upset forging, 143–145(F&T), 146(F)

volume wear, 138

wear, 97–99(F)

wear, deﬁnition, 129

wear-assisted failure, 129–131(F)

welded components, failure aspects of

aging tendency, 35

austenitic stainless steels, SCC of, 36

brittle fracture, 33–34

cold cracking, 36

hardening tendency, 35–36

segregation tendency, 36

temper embrittlement, 34–35

welded components, heat treatment procedures

austenitic-ferritic dissimilar joints, 40

carbon steels, 36–37

low-alloy steels, 36–37

stainless steels, PWHT of, 37–40

yield point, 483(T)

yield strength, 144(T), 161(T), 250(T), 507

yielding, 127–128

640 / Index

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