Van Huyssteen J.W. (editor) Encyclopedia of Science and Religion

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WOMANIST THEOLOGY

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creation also presents a crucial underpinning for

an adequate ecological ethic.

See also ARISTOTLE; BUDDHISM; DIVINE ACTION; EVIL

AND

SUFFERING; EVOLUTION; FREEDOM; FREE

PROCESS DEFENSE; METAPHYSICS; PANENTHEISM;

HYSICS, QUANTUM; PROCESS THOUGHT

Bibliography

Barbour, Ian G. Religion in an Age of Science: The Gifford

Lectures 1989–91, Vol. 1. San Francisco: Harper, 1990.

Cobb, John B., Jr. “Alfred North Whitehead.” In Founders

of Constructive Postmodern Philosophy: Peirce, James,

Bergson, Whitehead, and Hartshorne. Albany: State

University of New York Press, 1993.

Cobb, John B., Jr. A Christian Natural Theology: Based on

the Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead. Philadel-

phia: Westminster, 1965.

Griffin, David Ray. The Reenchantment of Science: Post-

modern Proposals. Albany: State University of New

York Press, 1988.

Griffin, David Ray. Religion and Scientific Naturalism:

Overcoming the Conflicts. Albany: State University

Press of New York, 2000.

Hartshorne, Charles. “Whitehead’s Idea of God.” The Phi-

losophy of Alfred North Whitehead, 2nd edition, ed.

Paul Arthur Schilpp. New York: Tudor, 1951.

Jungerman, John A. World in Process: Creativity and In-

terconnection in the New Physics. Albany: State Uni-

versity of New York Press, 2000.

Kraus, Elizabeth M., and Neville, Robert Cummings. The

Metaphysics of Experience: A Companion to White-

head’s Process and Reality. New York: Fordham Uni-

versity Press, 1998.

McDaniel, Jay B. Of God and Pelicans: A Theology of Rev-

erence for Life. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John

Knox, 1989.

Whitehead, Alfred North. Science and the Modern World.

New York: Macmillan, 1925.

Whitehead, Alfred North. Religion in the Making (1926).

New York: Macmillan and Fordham University Press,

1996.

Whitehead, Alfred North. Process and Reality: An Essay in

Cosmology (1929), corrected edition, ed. David Ray

Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne. New York: Free

Press, 1978.

Whitehead, Alfred North. Adventures of Ideas (1933). New

York: Free Press, 1968.

THOMAS JAY OORD

WOMANIST THEOLOGY

Alice Walker (b. 1944) coined the term womanist

in her 1983 book In Search of Our Mothers’ Gar-

dens. Womanist theology is a form of feminism that

focuses on the specific concerns of women of

African heritage. It centers around their relation-

ship with God, their commitment to the moral

flourishing of their communities, and their past,

present, and future struggles for justice. The cul-

tural contexts for womanist reflections are diverse.

Although the term originates in the African dias-

pora, others find the emphasis on communal well-

being and empowerment relevant to their own cul-

tural contexts. Although womanism situates itself

within a theological context, forays into intersec-

tions of science and religion tend to focus on is-

sues of healthcare within African American com-

munities, HIV/AIDS, the effects of biogenetic

engineering on the poor, environmental racism,

and shifting paradigms of dominance and control

emerging from new views of the universe.

See also ECOFEMINISM; FEMINISMS AND SCIENCE;

EMINIST THEOLOGY

Bibliography

Holmes, Barbara A. Race and Cosmology: An Invitation to

View the World Differently. Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity

Press International, 2002.

Townes, Emilie. Breaking the Fine Rain of Death: African

American Health Issues and a Womanist Ethic of

Care. New York: Continuum Press, 1998.

Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Wom-

anist Prose. New York: Harcourt, 1983.

BARBARA A. HOLMES

WORLDVIEW

There is a fundamental ambiguity in the way the

concept of worldview is used within the

science/religion discussion. On the one hand,

scholars talk about the scientific worldview, by

which they mean the picture of the universe that

emerges if one brings together the different theo-

ries of physics, astronomy, biology, sociology, and

so on into a systematic whole. On the other hand,

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some scholars make statements about the imbed-

dedness of science within a particular worldview,

for example, within feminism, Christianity, Islam,

or naturalism.

If the concept is understood in the second way,

it follows that science alone can never provide a

worldview, even though science can, of course,

contribute to the formation or revision of a world-

view. The reason why is that this conception pre-

supposes that science lacks certain features that

characterize a worldview. It is a matter of dispute

what these features are exactly, but two elements

that science seems to lack are values and meta-

physics. A worldview in this sense is typically taken

to explain who human beings really are, what the

world is ultimately like, and what people should do

to live a satisfying life. It gives direction and mean-

ing to life and thus provides people with values.

But science offers facts and not values. Therefore, it

does not qualify as a worldview. Moreover, no sci-

entific discipline can show whether the physical

universe is all that there is. If scientists make such

an assertion they make a metaphysical rather than

a scientific statement.

Theism and naturalism, on the other hand,

offer an answer to this kind of question. Theism

says that reality consists of God and all that God

has made. Naturalism holds that reality consists of

nothing but matter in motion. Therefore, theism

and naturalism, not science, are worldviews. Some

advocates of scientism question this view, arguing

that the boundaries of science can be expanded in

such a way that it can offer both values and meta-

physics. However, this view is highly controversial,

lacking scientific consensus. It is therefore better to

refer to it as a scientistic rather than a scientific

worldview.

A worldview need not be well-developed or

explicit; the worldviews of most people remain

simply sets of background assumptions of which

they are not fully aware. The function of such a

worldview is primarily to help people to deal with

their existential concerns, that is, their questions

about who they are, why they exist, what the

meaning of their life is, and what stance they

should take toward the experience of death, suf-

fering, guilt, love, forgiveness, and so forth. A

worldview is thus the constellation of beliefs and

values that (consciously or unconsciously) guide

people in their attempt to deal with their existential

concerns. A religious worldview affirms that peo-

ple could only adequately deal with their existen-

tial concerns if they let their lives be transformed

or enlightened by God or a divine reality, whereas

a secular worldview denies this.

See also ANIMAL RIGHTS; BIOTECHNOLOGY;

HRISTIANITY, ROMAN CATHOLIC, ISSUES IN

SCIENCE AND RELIGION; CLONING

Bibliography

Clark, M. A. “This Little Piggy Went to Market: The Xeno-

transplantation and Xenozoonose Debate.” Journal of

Law, Medicine, and Ethics 27 (1999): 137–152.

Cooper, David K. C., and Lanza, Robert P. Xeno: The

Promise of Transplanting Animal Organs into Hu-

mans. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Hanson, M. J. “The Seductive Sirens of Medical Transplan-

tation: The Case of Xenotransplantation.” Hastings

Center Report 25 (1995): 5–6.

International Xenotransplantation Society. Available from

http://www.ixa2001chicago.com.

McCarthy, Charles R. “A New Look at Animal-to-Human

Organ Transplantation.” Kennedy Institute of Ethics

Journal 6, no. 2 (1996): 183–188.

Pontifical Academy for Life. “Prospects for Xeno-

transplantation: Scientific Aspects and Ethical

Considerations.” September 26, 2001. Available

from http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/

pontifical_academies/acdlife/.

WHO Electronic Discussion Group (EDG) on International

Xenotranplantation Policy Considerations. Available

from http://www.who.int/emc/diseases/zoo/

meetings/xenodg.html.

DONNA M. MCKENZIE

ZOOLOGY

See LIFE SCIENCES

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ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

About the Annotated Bibliography

This Annotated Bibliography is intended as a starting point for readers who want to explore some of the themes described in the entries

in more detail, or who would like to know more about the religion and science dialogue in general. Without claiming to be exhaustive,

the Bibliography contains works that are generally regarded as having had a significant impact on the dialogue. The first three sections

contain general introductory, methodological, and historical works. Sections four through twelve contain works on specific scientific and/or

religious issues. Most works contain extensive bibliographies which will aid further research.

1. GENERAL INTRODUCTIONS AND TEXTBOOKS

Barbour, Ian G. Religion and Science: Historical and Contemporary Issues. San Francisco: HarperSanFran-

cisco, 1997.

The classic comprehensive introduction to the field. This revised and expanded edition of Barbour’s Gif-

ford Lectures deals with most aspects of the modern science and religion dialogue, and offers many read-

ing suggestions. It also contains the famous fourfold typology of relating science and religion: conflict, in-

dependence, dialogue, and integration. Though it is mainly intended as an overview of the field, Barbour

defends a “theology of nature” position coupled with a cautious use of process philosophy.

Clayton, Philip. God and Contemporary Science. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997.

This study in philosophical theology deals with contemporary scientific theories and their ramifications for

theological views of God and divine agency. Clayton argues that naturalism can be countered by relating

science and religion in a panentheist framework. As such, he argues for an ‘emergentist supervenience’

model of divine action.

Richardson, W. Mark, and Wildman, Wesley, J., eds. Religion and Science: History, Method, Dialogue. New

York and London: Routledge, 1996.

This voluminous collection of essays considers the venture of building bridges between science and reli-

gion, both historically and methodologically (parts I and II). Part III is a collection of essays by prominent

theologians and scientists trying to bring the major contemporary scientific theories into contact with the-

ological doctrines. An extensive thematically structured list of suggested scientific and theological readings

concludes this interdisciplinary book.

Southgate, Christopher, ed. God, Humanity and the Cosmos: A Textbook in Science and Religion. Harrisburg,

Pa: Trinity Press, 1999.

This textbook surveys historical and philosophical aspects of relating science and religion, and highlights

many facets of modern scientific theories. It also includes discussions on topics which are often left out,

such as the relation between psychology and theology, science and education, Islamic perspectives, and

issues of technology and ethics. The individual chapters are clearly structured into many subsections with

many cross-references which makes the book usable not only for introductory courses on science and re-

ligion but also for self-study.

2. METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE & RELIGION

Barbour, Ian G. Myths, Models, and Paradigms: A Comparative Study in Science & Religion. San Francisco:

Harper & Row, 1974.

This book centers around three themes. The first is the different functions and internal logics of scientific

and religious language. The second theme concerns the role of models in science and religion and their

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function for interpreting experience and restructuring our worldview. Thirdly the role of paradigms in sci-

ence and religion is highlighted. Barbour concludes that both science and religion offer knowledge of re-

ality based on experience. This work also offers the philosophical basics of so-called ‘critical realism’ in sci-

ence and religion.

Drees, Willem B. Religion, Science and Naturalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

In this work, Drees adopts an explicitly naturalistic stance. Many theological issues are considered and crit-

ically analyzed according to a extensively outlined naturalist methodology. Drees concludes that a natural-

ist methodology has serious repercussions for the theological worldview as well as for religious anthro-

pology. Drees sees religion embedded in our evolutionary history and our neurophysiological constitution,

and values religious traditions as important for their wisdom and prophetic vision. He also raises the im-

portant issue of ‘limit questions’: the questions that science raises but cannot answer.

Gregersen, Niels H., and Van Huyssteen, J. Wentzel, eds. Rethinking Theology and Science: Six Models for

the Current Dialogue. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1998.

In six essays an equal number of different models for relating theology and science are outlined. Van

Huyssteen writes on postfoundationalism; van Kooten Niekerk presents a version of critical realism; Drees

outlines naturalism; Herrmann expounds on a nonintegrative pragmatic approach; Watts writes on the com-

plementarity between science and theology; and finally, Gregersen presents a contextual coherence theory

that indicates that contact between theology and science takes place on several levels. Every approach tries

to absorb the cognitive pluralism and counter relativist currents that threaten the science and religion

dialogue.

Murphy, Nancey. Theology for an Age of Scientific Reasoning. Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University

Press, 1990.

Murphy’s acclaimed book deals with the challenge of skepticism regarding Christian belief. Against the

claims of the non- or irrationality of Christian belief over against the rationality of science, Murphy defends

the view that religious belief is as rational as science. Murphy refers to Lakatos’s methodology of scientific

research programs arguing that religious reasoning is similar to scientific procedure. She tests the viability

of her proposal by investigating actual theological research programs, such as Pannenberg’s and Roman

Catholic Modernism, concluding that theology makes claims to knowledge in the same way as science does.

Torrance, Thomas F. Theological Science. London: Oxford University Press, 1969.

Theology here is taken by Torrance, influenced by Barth, as the science of God. The methodological and

epistemological issues connected with such a concept of theology commit theologians to a dialogue with

other sciences and with philosophy, for they all use reason as the basic instrument, be it directed at differ-

ent subject-matters. Science and theology nowadays share the same problem: how to attain knowledge of

what goes beyond ourselves without imposing our presuppositions on reality. This book specifically deals

with the methodological issues this problem raises for theology.

3. HISTORY OF SCIENCE & RELIGION

Brooke, John Hedley. Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni-

versity Press, 1991.

Brooke’s work challenges the ‘warfare’ image of the history of the relation between science and religion

by emphasizing contextual shifts. The essays contained in this volume all highlight specific historical peri-

ods in which science and religion interacted (such as the age of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlight-

enment) or specific issues on which science and religions (dis)agreed (such as the clockwork universe, nat-

ural theology, and evolutionary theory). Brooke links his historical reflections to the twentieth-century

science and religion dialogue. An extensive bibliographical essay concludes this volume.

Funkenstein, Amos. Theology and the Scientific Imagination: From the Middle Ages to the Seventeenth Cen-

tury. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986.

This study addresses the transition from medieval to modern modes of thought. Funkenstein argues that the

divine attributes of omnipresence, omnipotence, and providence contributed to but also underwent rein-

terpretation because of the emergence of the natural sciences. Due to the resultant theological and scien-

tific changes, there arose in the seventeenth century a new ideal of knowledge: the ideal of knowledge-by-

doing or knowledge by construction. Funkenstein argues that these developments eventually lead to the

‘de-theologization’ of science in Enlightenment thought.

Lindberg, David C., and Numbers, Ronald L., eds. God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between

Christianity and Science. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1986.

These essays cover the periods of the Early Church, the Middle Ages and the controversy surrounding

Galileo, the seventeenth century Scientific Revolution and the rise of Darwin’s evolutionary theory, and con-

temporary debates concerning Creationism and the relation between present-day protestant theology and

science. The essays attempt to counter the ‘warfare’ thesis, and show that a highly delicate historical account

of the interplay between religion and science is possible.

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White, Andrew Dickson. A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. London and

New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1896.

Now generally regarded as one of the founding fathers of the so-called ‘warfare’-thesis of religion and sci-

ence, White sets out to describe the history of the relation between religion and science in terms of an age-

old conflict. Evolutionary theory, geography and geology, astronomy, miracles and magic, archeology, an-

thropology and ethnology, history, meteorology, chemistry and physics, philology, psychology, politics and

economy - all these domains are covered in the more than 900 pages of White’s account of the battle be-

tween the religious and the scientific worldview.

4. PHYSICS & RELIGION

Barrow, John D. and Tipler, Frank J. The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. Oxford, UK and New York: Ox-

ford University Press, 1986.

An astronomer and a physicist try to explain the relation between the properties of the universe and the

existence of life. Covering the history of design arguments and teleological principles, as well as modern

cosmology and astrophysics, the authors argue that modern physics and cosmology indicate that life is not

accidental. They claim that modern science contains evidence for both the weak and the strong anthropic

principles, stating that there is a close connection between the universe as it is and the emergence of car-

bon-based observers.

Davies, Paul. God and the New Physics. London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1983.

Davies expounds on “the impact of the new physics on what were formerly religious issues,” and concludes

that “science offers a surer path than religion in the search of God.” This book deals with physical, philo-

sophical, and theological issues such as mind and soul, determinism and free will, and miracles. Davies re-

worked some of the controversial statements in this work in a sequel The Mind of God: The Scientific Basis

for a Rational World. (New York etc.: Simon & Schuster, 1992).

Drees, Willem B. Beyond the Big Bang: Quantum Cosmologies and God. La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1990.

Without too many technicalities, Drees discusses issues at the interface of science and religion, such as:

Does Big Bang cosmology have any relation to the Christian doctrine of creation ex nihilo? What does

quantum cosmology state about ‘the beginning’ of the universe? Do the ‘anthropic principles’ have any sci-

entific groundings? And how does eschatology fare in the light of the scientific cosmological futures? Some

methodological reflections already foreshadow his naturalist position.

Russell, Robert John; Murphy, Nancey; and Isham, C.J., eds. Quantum Cosmology and the Laws of Nature:

Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action. 2nd Edition. Berkeley, Calif.: CTNS and Vatican City State: Vatican

Observatory, 1999.

A collection of interdisciplinary essays written by leading scientists, theologians, and philosophers of reli-

gion on the implications of quantum cosmology and the status of the laws of nature for theological and

philosophical issues regarding God’s action in the world. The essays are clustered into five sections: the sci-

entific background of quantum cosmology, methodological remarks on relating science and theology,

philosophical issues on time and the laws of nature, and two sections on theological implications.

Worthing, Mark William. God, Creation, and Contemporary Physics. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press,

1996.

Worthing’s book surveys the links between theories from physics and cosmology and the theological issues

of God’s existence, creation out of nothing, and divine action. He also describes possible consequences of

physical theories for Christian eschatology. The conclusion of the book is that theology cannot, strictly

speaking, challenge the scientific conclusions drawn from the new physics, but theology must take notice

of the metaphysical and theological implications of these theories.

5. BIOLOGY & RELIGION

Behe, Michael. Darwin’s Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution. New York: The Free Press,

1996.

Behe’s book is one of the basic writings of the so-called ‘Intelligent Design’ movement. Behe argues that

evolution takes place on the molecular level where science has shown that ‘irreducibly complex’ system

exist: systems that cannot have evolved, but must have come into existence in one piece. Behe claims that

the molecular basis of life is irreducibly complex, and, hence, cannot properly be described by the Dar-

winian evolutionary theory. Therefore, ‘intelligent design’ is the only plausible explanation for this irre-

ducible complexity and for life.

Dembski, William A. Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science & Theology. Downers Grove, Il: Inter-

Varsity Press, 1999.

In this book Dembski explains what the Intelligent Design movement is about: a scientific research pro-

gram, anti-naturalistic, and a theology of divine action. Standing in the tradition of British natural theology,

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ID attempts to reinstate design within science, especially in the irreducible complexity of biological sci-

ences. Dembski claims that by referring to empirically detectable signs of intelligent design, theology and

science are able to provide epistemic support for each other’s claims.

Durant, John, ed. Darwinism and Divinity: Essays on Evolution and Religious Belief. Oxford, UK: Basil

Blackwell, 1985.

In seven interdisciplinary essays, historians, theologians, anthropologists, sociologists, and philosophers use

their expertise to shed some light on the question how evolutionary thought affects religious belief. The es-

says are written from different perspectives, which results in a kaleidoscope of views instead of a unitary

vision. The authors not only consider the impact of evolution on religious thought, but also ask how

religion affected evolutionary thinking. Some of the essays deal explicitly with discussions surrounding

creationism.

Haught, John F. God After Darwin: A Theology of Evolution. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2000.

According to Haught, the discussions between die-hard evolutionists like Daniel Dennett and Richard

Dawkins and Christian apologists all rest on the same mistake: both groups focus too much on static de-

sign and (dis)order in the universe. Haught, on the other hand, emphasizes the dynamic aspects of cre-

ativity and novelty that emerge in the process of evolution. He shows how these aspects are compatible

with a concept of God that is described in partly Teilhardian and partly process-theological terms.

Hefner, Philip. The Human Factor: Evolution, Culture, and Religion. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1993.

This book aims “at a theological anthropology in the light of the natural sciences.” Especially noteworthy

is Hefner’s hypothesis that humans are ‘created co-creators’ with God, which proved influential in the sci-

ence and religion dialogue. This hypothesis, emphasizing the potentials of human beings, is the red line of

the book. The five parts that make up this book contain theoretical reflections on science and religion, re-

flections on nature, freedom, culture (including ethics), and connections with theology.

Numbers, Ronald L. The Creationists. Berkeley, Calif.: The University of California Press, 1993.

Numbers provides a detailed history of creationist lines of thinking from Darwin on until the renewed in-

terest since the 1960s in the US. He shows that many paradigm shifts have taken place within the creationist

framework, specifically with regard to ‘catastrophism,’ the antiquity of the earth, and the geological inter-

pretations of the Genesis Flood. Numbers also shows how creationism became institutionalized, and how

the churches responded to creationist thought, and argues that creationism questions the integrity and

meaning of science itself.

Peacocke, Arthur. God and the New Biology. London andMelbourne: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd, 1986.

Peacocke sets out to describe how the perspective of the new biology, with its “increasing apprehension

of the labyrinthine complexity of the molecular processes and structures that are involved in the dynamics

of a living organism,” relates to a new understanding of the interrelations between humans, evolution, and

God. Taking the issue of reductionism as his starting point, Peacocke argues that the new biology shows

nature to be multi-leveled and hierarchical with new emergent features developing all the time. He also dis-

cusses sociobiology and Dawkins’ ‘selfish gene’ idea.

Ruse, Michael. Can a Darwinian Be a Christian? The Relationship Between Science and Religion. Cam-

bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Evolutionary theory meets the Christian religion in this work by an eminent philosopher. The book does

not treat the dialogue between science and religion on a general level, but shows how concrete Christian

doctrines are confronted by evolutionary thought. Ruse argues against Intelligent Design and Creationism,

and argues in favor of social Darwinism and sociobiology. He concludes that nothing precludes a Darwin-

ian to be a Christian, though at times it may be challenging and difficult.

Russell, Robert John; Stoeger, William R.; and Ayala, Francisco J., eds. Evolutionary and Molecular Biology:

Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action. Berkeley, Calif.: CTNS and Vatican City State: Vatican Observatory,

1999.

A collection of interdisciplinary essays written by leading scientists, theologians, and philosophers of reli-

gion on the implications of evolutionary and molecular biology for the concept of divine action. In four sec-

tions the authors deal with the scientific background of evolution and molecular biology; the relation be-

tween evolution and divine action; religious interpretations of biological themes; and the interrelations

between biology, ethics, and the problem of evil.

Ward, Keith. God, Chance & Necessity. Oxford: Oneworld, 1996.

Ward argues against the scientistic and materialist claims like those of Richard Dawkins, Peter Atkins, and

Michael Ruse who see the universe as governed by chance and not by purpose. Ward takes their claims se-

riously, but shows how these scientistic claims ultimately point in the direction of God’s existence as the

best available explanation. Though the book focuses on (neo-)Darwinian evolutionary theory, Ward also

touches upon cosmology, the problem of entropy and emergence, and the mystery of consciousness.

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6. MATHEMATICS, COMPUTER SCIENCE & RELIGION

Gell-Mann, Murray. The Quark and the Jaguar: Adventures in the Simple and the Complex. London: Little,

Brown and Company, 1994.

Gell-Mann, a Nobel Prize-winning theoretical physicist, explores the relationships between various scien-

tific concepts of simplicity and complexity. The central focus of the book is the notion of complex adap-

tive systems: systems that evolve and learn by acquiring information. Gell-Mann’s account covers many ter-

rains: quantum mechanics and the fundamental laws of physics, information theory, biological evolution,

human creative thinking, and ecology.

Gregersen, Niels Henrik, ed. From Complexity to Life: On the Emergence of Life and Meaning. Oxford/New

York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

In the three parts that make up this book the link between complexity and information, the origin of life,

and the nature of the universe is investigated. Complexity scientists, theologians, and philosophers of reli-

gion explore questions of defining complexity, the nature and role of information in physics and biology,

and philosophical and religious perspectives on the meaning of emergence and complexity.

Herzfeld, Noreen L. In Our Image: Artificial Intelligence and the Human Spirit. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress

Press, 2002.

This book charts some of the consequences of the sciences of Artificial Intelligence for our idea of what it

means to be human, and how AI affects the phrase that we are created in God’s image. Dealing with these

and related issues, Herzfeld develops a model of relationality: “The way we define God’s image in our

human nature or our image in the computer has implications, not only for how we view ourselves but also

for how we relate to God, to one another, and to our own creations.”

Puddefoot, John. God and the Mind Machine: Computers, Artificial Intelligence and the Human Soul. Lon-

don: SPCK, 1996.

Issues surrounding computers, life, intelligence, and the human soul are the focus of this book. It addresses

the question of how to relate theology to issues concerning computer science and Artificial Intelligence.

This book addresses the growing anxiety among religious believers that developments in computer science

and Artificial Intelligence will take away the soul. Puddefoot argues that these scientific developments might

be seen as part of God’s purpose with the universe. Though Puddefoot draws no definite conclusions, his

study does give impetus to further explorations and reflections.

Russell, Robert John; Murphy, Nancey; and Peacocke, Arthur R., eds. Chaos and Complexity: Scientific Per-

spectives on Divine Action. Berkeley, Calif.: CTNS & Vatican City State: Vatican Observatory, 1995.

A collection of essays of eminent scientists, theologians, and philosophers of religion on the implications

of chaos and self-organization in physical, chemical, and biological systems for philosophical and theolog-

ical issues regarding divine action in the world. The first section contains two introductory essays on the

scientific aspects of chaos and complexity. The second relates chaos and complexity to the philosophy of

life. The third and fourth sections link chaos and complexity to divine action and explore alternative ap-

proaches of divine action. The whole constitutes a detailed overview of the contemporary reception of the

sciences of nonlinear systems in theological reflection.

Smith, Peter. Explaining Chaos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

This volume is a mildly technical introduction to the concepts of chaos theory and its philosophical impli-

cations. It is especially noteworthy that Smith makes a distinction between the mathematics of chaos and

its empirical applications. Fractals, the problem of predictability and explanation, the difference between

chaos and randomness, and the definition of chaos - these are only a few of the many issues that Smith

covers.

7. THE HUMAN SCIENCES & RELIGION

d’Aquili, Eugene and Newberg, Andrew B. The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biology of Religious Experience.

Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1999.

D’Aquili and Newberg attempt to integrate theology and neuroscience by exploring “the issue of how ‘ul-

timate being’ is perceived and experienced by the human brain and mind.” The authors introduce basic

concepts from theology and neuroscience, and explore the role of the brain and mind in myth-making, rit-

ual and liturgy, meditation, near-death experiences and mysticism. Both Eastern and Western religious tra-

ditions are taken into account. Finally, they try to integrate their findings into a phenomenological ‘neu-

rotheology.’

Austin, James H. Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness. Cam-

bridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1998.

Meditation and neurology are brought together in an attempt to unravel the mystery of consciousness and

enlightenment or ‘peak’ experiences. Austin takes Zen meditation as his starting point, and describes the

physiological mechanisms involved. Thereafter he summarizes some of the latest developments in brain re-

search and defines the usual states of consciousness and their alternative expressions. Finally alternate med-

itative states of consciousness as well as enlightenment experiences are investigated.

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Brown, Warren S.; Murphy, Nancey; and Malony, Newton H., eds. Whatever Happened to the Soul? Scien-

tific and Theological Portraits of Human Nature. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1998.

This interdisciplinary volume contains ten essays by scientists and theologians on scientific and theological

aspects of human nature. Special focus is on the idea of the soul. Many authors adopt the position of

‘nonreductive physicalism,’ a holistic or monistic view over against a dualist view of mind and brain. From

this perspective the soul is described as “a functional capacity of a complex physical organism.”

Mithen, Steven. The Prehistory of Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion and Science. New York:

Thames and Hudson, 1996.

Mithen’s book is a mixture of an archeological account of the prehistoric roots of our minds, connected to

the emergence of art and religion, and a study in the philosophy of mind, seeing in the archeological data

evidence for the modularity of the human brain. Mithen argues there is a common origin to art, religion,

and science in the prehistoric usage of the mind, which led, through a series of evolutionary phases of spe-

cialization and collaboration, to our modular minds.

Palmer, Michael. Freud and Jung on Religion. London/New York: Routledge, 1997.

Today’s psychology is still very much indebted to the two founding fathers of twentieth-century psychol-

ogy, Sigmund Freud and Karl Gustav Jung. Their relation to religion is often interpreted in ambiguous fash-

ion: Freud as a reductionist enemy of religion, and Jung as a New Age enthusiast. In this volume, Palmer

goes back to the basics of Freud’s and Jung’s own writings on the psychology of religion, linking their

claims on religion to their psychological theories, and drawing comparisons between their respective po-

sitions whilst critically evaluating their claims.

Peters, Ted. Playing God? Genetic Determinism and Human Freedom. New York and London: Routledge,

1997.

Thinking about genetics is closely bound to problems of determinism and human freedom. According to

Peters, a cultural expression of this is the ‘gene myth,’ which asserts that everything that makes us distinc-

tively human is genetically determined. Peters confronts this myth with the theological view of humans as

future-oriented and as co-creative with God. This view will lead to a healthy ethics for guiding genetic re-

search which should be used “to relieve human suffering and to make this a better world in which to live.”

Rolston, Holmes, III. Genes, Genesis and God: Values and their Origins in Natural and Human History.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Based on Rolston’s Gifford Lectures, this study explores the connections between religion, ethics, and bio-

logical accounts of genetic influences. Rolston strongly argues against sociobiological accounts that reduce

religion and ethics to biological features. He interprets evolutionary history as the genesis and history of nat-

ural values, which are conserved and transmitted by science, religion, and ethics. He claims that the so-

ciobiological reductionists miss an important point by misunderstanding how these values are transmitted

and shared. As such, Rolston assigns a prominent role to culture, and accordingly links ‘nurture’ intimately

with ‘nature.’

Russell, Robert John; Murphy, Nancey; Meyering, Theo C.; and Arbib, Michael A. eds. Neuroscience and the

Person: Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action. Berkeley, Calif.: CTNS and Vatican City State: Vatican Ob-

servatory, 1999.

Another collection of essays written by scientists, philosophers, and theologians ranging the broad terrain

of the cognitive neurosciences and their implications for philosophy, theology, and models of divine ac-

tion. Many essays revolve around the issues of the sense of self and soul, the person, and religious an-

thropology. One can find also philosophical accounts on the relation between mind and brain, theories of

supervenience, emergence, and Artificial Intelligence.

8. FEMINIST APPROACHES TO RELIGION & SCIENCE

Haraway, Donna J. Modest Witness, Second Millennium. FemaleMan

Meets OncoMouse™: Feminism and

Technoscience. New York and London: Routledge, 1997.

A study on the many facets of technoscience and their implications for our view of the world, and for fem-

inism in particular. Haraway argues that the information sciences and the technological applications for the

life sciences are changing our view of reality and of ourselves, and she specifically explores the idea of ‘cy-

borgs,’ beings that are part human part machine. She further reflects on the changing values and ethical as-

pects of technoscience.

Harding, Sandra. Whose Science? Whose Knowledge? Thinking from Women’s Lives. Cornell: Cornell Uni-

versity Press, 1991.

A variety of contemporary voices from many different perspectives criticizes mainstream science and tech-

nology. This study links the feminist criticisms on Western science, technology, and epistemology to these

other perspectives. Two red lines run through the ten essays contained in this book. First, the evaluation

of interrelations between science, models of knowledge and the Western society and culture, and the cre-

ation of ‘others’ which are outside the mainstream society or culture. Secondly, Harding tries to show how

feminisms are influenced by and influencing other liberatory movements.

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Tuana, Nancy. The Less Noble Sex: Scientific, Religious, and Philosophical Conceptions of Women’s Nature.

Bloomington/Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993.

Tuana argues that religion and philosophy have affected and have been influenced by scientific theories of

women’s nature and her inferiority to man. The book gives a historical account of these matters from the

classical period until the nineteenth century. The central claim is that the belief “that woman is less than

man … is more than simple bias, easily amenable to revision. It is part of our inherited metaphysics.” Ex-

posing metaphysical assumption will benefit critical reexamination and openness to alternatives.

Wertheim, Margaret. Pythagoras’ Trousers: God, Physics, and the Gender Wars. New York: Norton, 1997.

Wertheim explores the history of the interconnections between science and the wider cultural sphere. Her

claim is that the relation between science and religion is more intimate than is often thought. Under the in-

fluence of the idea of a heavenly realm of mathematics, scientists, and especially physicists, received in our

Western society a priest-like status. As Wertheim argues, this ‘priestly’ nature of science is also largely re-

sponsible for the masculine character of many sciences, and for the difficulties that women experience

when they want to participate in this culture.

9. PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE & RELIGION

Clayton, Philip. Explanation from Physics to Theology: An Essay in Rationality and Religion. New Haven

and London: Yale University Press, 1989.

Does religion give explanations similar to scientific explanations? To find an answer to this question, Clay-

ton investigates the nature and justification of explanatory claims in both the natural and the social sciences,

and argues that when the concept of explanation is not reduced to merely scientific explanation, religious

experiences and beliefs can appropriately be said to function as explanations. The upshot is that the func-

tion of religious and scientific explanations are comparable.

Pannenberg, Wolfhart. Theology and the Philosophy of Science. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1976.

This volume explicitly addresses the issue whether or not theology is a science. Pannenberg gives detailed

expositions of theology’s struggles with Logical Positivism, and Positivism’s struggle with the critical ra-

tionalism of Popper. He also considers the relation between the natural and social sciences, and the role of

hermeneutics. Ultimately, Pannenberg argues that theology is a science: the ‘science of God,’ whilst doc-

trines could be considered as hypotheses.

Stenmark, Mikael. Rationality in Science, Religion, and Everyday Life: A Critical Evaluation of Four Models

of Rationality.Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1995.

In this study, Stenmark distinguishes four models of rationality and discusses what these models entail es-

pecially for science, religion, and our everyday life. Instead of employing an abstract model of rationality

and attempting to incorporate these three areas, Stenmark opts to start with rationality as practice-oriented

and as mirroring actual human practices. This leads him to his ‘presumptionist’ model of rationality: in both

science and religion it is rational to accept a belief unless there are good reasons to abandon it.

Stenmark, Mikael. Scientism: Science, Ethics and Religion. Aldershot etc.: Ashgate, 2001.

In the first chapter, Stenmark provides an impressive overview of the different kinds of ‘scientism,’ basically

the view that there is nothing “outside the domain of science nor any area of human life to which science

cannot successfully be applied.” In subsequent chapters Stenmark attempts to debunk scientistic claims with

regard to knowledge and reality, morality and ethics, and religion. He concludes that scientism is a meta-

physical belief akin to religious belief, and urges scientists to become more conscious of the limitations of

the scientific enterprise.

van Huyssteen, J. Wentzel. The Shaping of Rationality: Toward Interdisciplinarity in Theology and Science.

Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1999.

Van Huyssteen explores possibilities of interdisciplinary dialogue between theology and science based on

mutual respect and understanding. He tries to steer away from both extremes of modernist foundational-

ism and postmodernist relativism by developing a postfoundationalist position which emphasizes contex-

tuality, embedded experience, and the ‘transversal’ potentiality of rationality to reach beyond the confines

of the local community. Van Huyssteen emphasizes the specific rationality of theology over against scien-

tistic, foundationalist, and relativist tendencies in modern philosophy of science and the broader culture.

10. THEOLOGY & THE SCIENCES

Allen, Diogenes. Christian Belief in a Postmodern World: The Full Wealth of Conviction. Louisville, Ky.:

Westminster John Knox Press, 1989.

Allen is of the opinion that the Enlightenment has expelled God from the world, while faith has been re-

duced to either fideism of relativism. However, now that we have seen the decline of the Enlightenment

project, there may be new possibilities for faith to experience God. In an attempt at rediscovering the riches

of the Christian faith, Allen describes how the order of nature can be seen as a witness to God’s existence.

He also highlights the reasonability of faith and revelation, divine action, and the issue of other faiths.

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