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Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought

568

Empiricism:

Classic texts include JOHN LOCKE, An Essay Concerning Human

Understanding, 2 vol. (1690); DAVID HUME, A Treatise of Human Nature,

book 1, pt. 1 (1739); IMMANUEL KANT, Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1781;

Eng. trans., Critique of Pure Reason, 1929); JOHN STUART MILL, A System

of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, books 1 and 2 (1843).

W.H. WALSH, Reason and Experience (1947); and H.H. PRICE,

Thinking and Experience, 2nd ed. (1969), are good general surveys. For a

comprehensive selection of standard works from Locke to J.S. Mill, see A.J.

AYER and R. WINCH (eds.), The British Empirical Philosophers (1952).

Modern works in the Empiricist tradition include BERTRAND RUSSELL,

Human Knowledge (1948); W.T. STACE, Theory of Knowledge and

Existence (1932); RUDOLF CARNAP, Der logische Aufbau der Welt (1928;

Eng. trans., The Logical Structure of the World, 1967); and A.J. AYER,

Language, Truth and Logic, 2nd ed. (1946), a short exposition of the extreme

Empiricist position. HAROLD MORICK (ed.), Challenges to Empiricism

(1980), is a collection of essays.

Existentialism:

Fundamental texts include SOREN KIERKEGAARD, Philosophiske

smuler (1844; Philosophical Fragments, 1936); Afsluttende uvidenskabelig

efterskrift til de philosophiske smuler (1846; Concluding Unscientific

Postscript, 1941). FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE, Also sprach Zarathustra

(1883-84; Thus Spoke Zarathustra, trans. by W. KAUFMANN in The

Portable Nietzsche, 1954); Zur Genealogie der Moral (1877; Toward a

Genealogy of Morals, trans. by W. KAUFMANN in Basic Writings of

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Nietzsche, 1966). KARL JASPERS, Psychologie der Weltanschauungen

(1919), the first work of contemporary Existentialism, announcing all of the

fundamental theses; Philosophie, 3 vol. (1932; Philosophy, 3 vol., 1969-71);

Vernunft und Existenz (1935; Eng. trans., Reason and Existenz, 1955).

MARTIN HEIDEGGER, Sein und Zeit (1927; 10th ed., 1963; Being and

Time, 1962); Was ist Metaphysik? (1929; “What Is Metaphysics?” trans. by

R.F.C. HULL and A. CRICK in Existence and Being, 1949); Einführung in

die Metaphysik (1953; An Introduction to Metaphysics, 1959). GABRIEL

MARCEL, Être et Avoir (1935; Being and Having, 1949); Le Mystère de

l’être, 2 vol. (1950; The Mystery of Being, 1950-51); The Philosophy of

Existence, (1949). NICOLA ABBAGNANO, La struttura dell’esistenza

(1939); N. LANGIULLI (ed. and trans.), Critical Existentialism (1969).

JEAN-PAUL SARTRE, L’Être et le néant (1943; Being and Nothingness,

1956); L’Existentialisme est un humanisme (1946; Existentialism and

Humanism, 1948). MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY, La Structure du

comportement (1942; The Structure of Behavior, 1963); Phénoménologie de

la perception (1945; The Phenomenology of Perception, 1962).

Important surveys and analyses include MARJORIE GRENE, Dreadful

Freedom (1948); HELMUT KUHN, Encounter with Nothingness: An Essay

on Existentialism (1951); MAURICE NATANSON, A Critique of Jean-Paul

Sartre’s Ontology (1951); JAMES COLLINS, The Existentialists: A Critical

Study (1952); WILLIAM BARRETT, What Is Existentialism? (1964);

ADOLPH LICHTIGFELD, Jaspers’ Metaphysics (1954); MARJORIE

GRENE, Martin Heidegger (1957); MARY WARNOCK, Existentialism

(1970); and ROBERT D. CUMMING, Starting Point (1979).

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Idealism:

The two best books on Idealism in English are A.C. EWING, Idealism:

A Critical Survey (1933); and R.F.A. HOERNLE, Idealism as a Philosophy

(1927). A.C. EWING (ed.), The Idealist Tradition from Berkeley to Blanshard

(1957), is a useful volume containing selections from the texts of the major

Idealists and selected criticisms of Idealism. Other important collections are

C. BARRETT (ed.), Contemporary Idealism in America (1932); J.H.

MUIRHEAD (ed.), Contemporary British Philosophy: Personal Statements,

First-Second Series, 2 vol. each (1924); and G.P. ADAMS and W.P.

MONTAGUE (eds.), Contemporary American Philosophy, 2 vol. (1930).

Works on the history and theory of the subject include: B. BLANSHARD,

Reason and Analysis (1962), a careful critical examination of schools of

philosophy opposed to Idealism; G.W. CUNNINGHAM, The Idealistic

Argument in Recent British and American Philosophy (1933), a thorough and

dependable treatise; S.N. DASGUPTA, Indian Idealism (1933); NICOLAI

HARTMANN, Die Philosophie des Deutsches Idealismus, vol. 1, Fichte,

Schelling, und die Romantik (1923), vol. 2, Hegel (1929), 2nd ed. (1 vol.,

1960); A.J.M. MILNE, The Social Philosophy of English Idealism (1962);

J.H. MUIRHEAD, The Platonic Tradition in Anglo-Saxon Philosophy:

Studies in the History of Idealism in England and America (1931); P.T.

RAJU, Idealistic Thought of India (1953); L.S. ROUNER (ed.), Philosophy,

Religion, and the Coming World Civilization: Essays in Honor of William

Ernest Hocking (1966); and A. STERN, Philosophy of History and the

Problem of Values (1962), a good secondary source.

On the classical systems of Indian philosophy, see S.

RADHAKRISHNAN, Indian Philosophy, 2 vol. (1923-27), an authoritative

exposition; S.N. DASGUPTA, A History of Indian Philosophy, 5 vol. (1922-

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55), an erudite examination of the Sanskrit and Pali texts; Indian Idealism

(1933); SRI AUROBINDO, The Life Divine (1949), a reinterpretation of the

heritage; and SWAMI VIVEKANANDA, The Yogas and Other Works

(1953), a collection with biography. In Pragmatism (1907) and in The

Varieties of Religious Experience (1902), WILLIAM JAMES quoted

Vivekananda at length as a typical representative of spiritual monism. In the

Sacred Books of the East, 50 vol., ed. by F. MAX MULLER (1879-1910), see

especially vol. 1 and 15, The Upanishads and vol. 8, The Bhagavadgîtâ. In the

Harvard Oriental Series, 47 vol., ed. by CHARLES ROCKWELL LANMAN

(1890-1968), see especially vol. 3, Buddhism in Translations, and vol. 17, The

Yoga-System of Patañjali.

Writings of Idealists are listed in their biographies. P.A. SCHILPP,

editor of “The Library of Living Philosophers Series,” has issued four

important volumes on Idealists: The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead,

2nd ed. (1951); The Philosophy of Ernst Cassirer (1949); The Philosophy of

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1962); and The Philosophy of Martin Buber

(1967); and a volume on Brand Blanshard is in preparation. Other works on

Idealists include: J.H. COTTON, Royce on the Human Self (1954), one of the

best books on Royce; D.S. ROBINSON, Royce and Hocking: American

Idealists (1968); and GABRIEL MARCEL, La Métaphysique de Royce (1945;

Eng. trans., 1956), which shows the relation of Marcel to Royce and Hocking.

H.T. KIM, “Nishida and Royce,” Philosophy East and West, 1:18-29 (1952),

and “The Logic of the Illogical: Zen and Hegel,” ibid., 5:19-29 (1955), are

informative accounts of Nishida’s contributions to Idealism. The following

volumes of the Revue Internationale de Philosophie contain valuable

bibliographies: Henri Bergson, vol. 3 (1948); Léon Brunschvicg, vol. 5

(1951); Hegel, vol. 6 (1952); George Berkeley, vol. 7 (1953); Benedetto

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Croce, vol. 7 (1953); Kant, vol. 8 (1954); Whitehead, vol. 15 (1961); Leibniz,

vol. 20 (1966); and Josiah Royce, vol. 21 (1967). GODFREY VESEY (ed.),

Idealism Past and Present (1982), includes historical essays on idealistic

thought of the past 2,500 years.

Materialism:

For the period up to about 100 years ago, see F.A. LANGE, Geschichte

des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedeutung in der Gegenwart, 2 vol.

(1902; Eng. trans., History of Materialism and Criticism of Its Present

Importance, 3rd ed., 3 vol. (1925). For more recent times, see JOHN

PASSMORE, A Hundred Years of Philosophy, 2nd ed. (1966). There are

excellent articles by KEITH CAMPBELL and H.B. ACTON on

“Materialism” and “Dialectical Materialism” in the Encyclopedia of

Philosophy, vol. 5, pp. 179-188 and vol. 2, pp. 389-397 (1967), which also

contains excellent articles on nearly all of the noncontemporary philosophers

here mentioned. Examples of work by most of the contemporary writers are

given in JOHN O’CONNOR (ed.), Modern Materialism: Readings on Mind-

Body Identity (1969); and C.V. BORST (ed.), The Mind-Brain Identity Theory

(1970). See also HERBERT FEIGL, The “Mental” and the “Physical”: The

Essay and a Postscript (1967); J.J.C. SMART, Philosophy and Scientific

Realism (1963); D.M. ARMSTRONG, A Materialist Theory of the Mind

(1968); and WILFRID SELLARS, Science, Perception and Reality (1963),

especially ch. 1. A rather difficult book defending Materialism from the

difficulties about intentionality is D.C. DENNETT, Content and

Consciousness (1969). For two very different styles of antimaterialist

argument, see J.R. LUCAS, The Freedom of the Will (1970); and NORMAN

MALCOLM, Problems of Mind (1971). Another interesting critique of

Materialism is in JOHN BELOFF, The Existence of Mind (1962). A mainly

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mechanistic philosophy of biology is presented by the German biologist B.

RENSCH in Biophilosophie auf erkenntnistheoretischer Grundlage

(Panpsychistischer Identismus) (1968; Eng. trans., Biophilosophy, 1971),

though Rensch’s philosophy is also panpsychist.

Some classic Materialist works are: LUCRETIUS, On the Nature of the

Universe, trans. by R.E. LATHAM (1951); THOMAS HOBBES, Body, Mind

and Citizen: Selections, ed. by R.S. PETERS (1962); RENE DESCARTES,

Philosophical Writings, trans. and ed. by ELIZABETH ANSCOMBE and P.T.

GEACH (1954); and A. VARTANIAN, La Mettrie’s “L’Homme Machine”: A

Study in the Origins of an Idea (1960), which is a critical edition with

introductory monograph and notes.

For epistemic Materialism, see RUDOLF CARNAP, “Psychology in

Physical Language,” in A.J. AYER (ed.), Logical Positivism (1959); Carnap’s

replies to Herbert Feigl and A.J. Ayer in P.A. SCHILPP (ed.), The Philosophy

of Rudolf Carnap (1964); and H. REICHENBACH, Experience and

Prediction (1938).

The most relevant and important works by Ryle and Wittgenstein are:

GILBERT RYLE, The Concept of Mind (1949); and LUDWIG

WITTGENSTEIN, Philosophical Investigations (1953). For a Materialist

critique of Ryle, see BRIAN MEDLIN, “Ryle and the Mechanical

Hypothesis,” in C.F. PRESLEY (ed.), The Identity Theory of Mind, 2nd ed.

(1971).

Phenomenology:

Most of the classical works on Phenomenology were written by Husserl

himself (see the bibliography of the HUSSERL article). In EDMUND

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HUSSERL, Logische Untersuchungen, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1913-21; Eng. trans.,

Logical Investigations, 2 vol., 1970), one of the fundamental texts on

Phenomenology, the phenomenological method is applied in the area of logic.

The following works appeared in the journal Jahrbuch für Philosophie und

phänomenologische Forschung (1913-30); Husserl’s Ideen zu einer reinen

Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie (1913; Eng. trans.,

Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology, 1931, reprinted 1969),

through which Phenomenology established itself as transcendental philosophy

and received worldwide reaction; Vorlesungen zur Phänomenologie des

inneren Zeitbewusstseins (1928; Eng. trans., The Phenomenology of Internal

Time-Consciousness, 1964); and Formale und transzendentale Logik (1929;

Eng. trans., Formal and Transcendental Logic, 1969); MAX SCHELER, Der

Formalismus in der Ethik (1916); and MARTIN HEIDEGGER, Sein und Zeit

(1927; Eng. trans., Being and Time, 1962). The following works appeared in

the series Husserliana (Husserl’s collected works): Cartesianische

Meditationen und Pariser Vorträge (1950; Eng. trans., The Paris Lectures,

1964), which contains the text of the Paris lectures of 1929 and the subsequent

elaboration; Die Idee der Phänomenologie (1950: Eng. trans., The Idea of

Phenomenology, 1964), an introduction to Phenomenology in five lectures

from 1907; Ideen, 3 vol. (1950-52); Die Krisis der europäischen

Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Phänomenologie (1954; Eng. trans.,

The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology, 1970),

Husserl’s later work (1934-37), significant for the problems regarding the life-

world; Erste Philosophie, 2 vol. (1956-59), a critical history of ideas and a

theory of reduction presented in a series of lectures, 1923-24;

Phänomenologische Psychologie (1962), lectures from 1925, a different

wording of the Encyclopædia Britannica article of 1927, with remarks by

Heidegger and the Amsterdam addresses of 1925; Zur Phänomenologie des

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inneren Zeitbewusstseins (1966), text on the problem of time from 1893-1917

with lectures (in the middle) from 1905 on the inner time-consciousness (first

edited by Heidegger); Analysen zur passiven Synthesis (1966), a

phenomenological analysis having sensation as its subject matter; and

Philosophie der Arithmetik (1970), early manuscripts from 1890 to 1901. His

The Basic Problems of Phenomenology, trans. by ALBERT HOFSTADTER

(1982; originally published in German., 1975), reproduces a course of lectures

given in 1927. See also JOSEPH J. KOCKELMANS, Edmund Husserl’s

Phenomenological Psychology (1967); and RUDOLF BOEHM, Vom

Gesichtspunkt der Phänomenologie (1968).

In the series “Phaenomenologica” works are published that are written

from a Phenomenological perspective, HERBERT SPIEGELBERG, The

Phenomenological Movement, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1965), worthy of particular

mention, also appeared in this series. Since 1904 MARVIN FARBER has

edited the journal Philosophy and Phenomenological Research (by no means,

however, exclusively dedicated to Phenomenology). In England The Journal

of the British Society for Phenomenology first appeared in 1970. In the United

States the following journals have appeared: Journal of Phenomenological

Psychology (semi-annual); Research in Phenomenology (1971); and Analecta

Husserliana: The Yearbook of Phenomenological Research.

Plato:

Life and thought: There are several good brief introductions to Plato,

including C.J. ROWE, Plato (1984); J.E. RAVEN, Plato’s Thought in the

Making: A Study of the Development of His Metaphysics (1965, reprinted

1985); G.M.A. GRUBE, Plato’s Thought (1935, reprinted 1980); G.C.

FIELD, The Philosophy of Plato, 2nd ed. (1969, reprinted 1978); and A.E.

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TAYLOR, Plato, the Man and His Work, 7th ed. (1960, reprinted 1969). On

Plato’s life, see also G.C. FIELD, Plato and His Contemporaries: A Study in

Fourth-Century Life and Thought (1930, reprinted 1975); ALICE SWIFT

RIGINOS, Platonica: The Anecdotes Concerning the Life and Writings of

Plato (1976); and the old but still valuable work by GEORGE GROTE, Plato,

and the Other Companions of Sokrates, new ed., 4 vol. (1888, reprinted 1974).

On the history of the Academy, see HAROLD CHERNISS, The Riddle of the

Early Academy (1945, reprinted 1980); and JOHN GLUCKER, Antiochus and

the Late Academy (1978).

A full and scholarly account of Plato’s philosophy can be found in

W.K.C. GUTHRIE, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 4, Plato: The Man

and His Dialogues: Earlier Period (1975), and vol. 5, The Later Plato and the

Academy (1978), while vol. 3, The Fifth-Century Enlightenment (1969),

contains a full account of what is known about Socrates. Other general

accounts include PAUL FRIEDLÄNDER, Plato, 3 vol. (1958-69; originally

published in German, 2nd ed., 1954-60); I.M. CROMBIE, An Examination of

Plato’s Doctrines, 2 vol. (1962-63; reissued 1979); and J.C.B. GOSLING,

Plato (1973, reissued 1983). GILBERT RYLE, Plato’s Progress (1966), is

idiosyncratic. Much contemporary scholarly work has appeared in articles.

GREGORY VLASTOS, Platonic Studies, 2nd ed. (1981), contains several

classic papers. There are two useful anthologies: GREGORY VLASTOS

(ed.), The Philosophy of Socrates (1971, reprinted 1980), and Plato, 2 vol.

(1970-71, reprinted 1978).

On Plato’s ethics, see in particular JOHN GOULD, The Development of

Plato’s Ethics (1955, reprinted 1972); PAMELA HUBY, Plato and Modern

Morality (1972); and TERENCE IRWIN, Plato’s Moral Theory: The Early

and Middle Dialogues (1977, reissued 1979). On his political theory, see

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R.H.S. CROSSMAN, Plato Today, rev. 2nd ed. (1959, reissued 1971); K.R.

POPPER, The Open Society and Its Enemies, vol. 1, The Spell of Plato, 5th

ed. (1966, reprinted 1971); RONALD B. LEVINSON, In Defense of Plato

(1953, reissued 1970); RENFORD BAMBROUGH (ed.), Plato, Popper and

Politics: Some Contributions to a Modern Controversy (1967); and ROBERT

W. HALL, Plato (1981). See also MARY MARGARET MACKENZIE, Plato

on Punishment (1981); and RICHARD KRAUT, Socrates and the State

(1984). For Plato’s views on aesthetics, see IRIS MURDOCH, The Fire and

the Sun: Why Plato Banished the Artists (1977); and JULIUS MORAVCSIK

and PHILIP TEMKO (eds.), Plato on Beauty, Wisdom, and the Arts (1982).

For Plato’s view of the soul, see T.M. ROBINSON, Plato’s Psychology

(1970). On the physical theory of the Timaeus, see GREGORY VLASTOS,

Plato’s Universe (1975); and on his attitude to science, see JOHN P. ANTON

(ed.), Science and the Sciences in Plato (1980).

On epistemology, see W.F.R. HARDIE, A Study in Plato (1936);

NORMAN GULLEY, Plato’s Theory of Knowledge (1962, reprinted 1973);

W.G. RUNCIMAN, Plato’s Later Epistemology (1962); NICHOLAS P.

WHITE, Plato on Knowledge and Reality (1976); and JON MOLINE, Plato’s

Theory of Understanding (1981). The standard study of Plato’s ideas on logic

and dialectic is RICHARD ROBINSON, Plato’s Earlier Dialectic, 2nd ed.

(1953, reprinted 1984). See also JULIUS STENZEL, Plato’s Method of

Dialectic (1940, reprinted 1973; originally published in German, 2nd ed.,

1931); and KENNETH M. SAYRE, Plato’s Analytic Method (1969).

On metaphysics and the theory of Forms there is a comprehensive

survey by W.D. ROSS, Plato’s Theory of Ideas (1951, reissued 1976); and a

useful collection of essays, R.E. ALLEN (ed.), Studies in Plato’s Metaphysics