Ridling Zaine. Philosophy: Then and Now. A look back at 26 centuries of thought
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Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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emphasizes the effect of modern science on philosophy; and RICHARD H.
POPKIN, The History of Scepticism from Erasmus to Spinoza, rev. and
expanded ed. (1979), which emphasizes the rediscovery of scepticism in the
16th century. RENÉ DESCARTES’s greatest work is Meditations on First
Philosophy, trans. by JOHN COTTINGHAM (1986; originally published in
Latin, 1641). JOHN LOCKE attacks the doctrine of innate ideas in Book I of
his An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, ed. by PETER H.
NIDDITCH (1975), while his position on knowledge is developed in Books II
and IV. A good introduction to Locke’s thought is JOHN W. YOLTON,
Locke: An Introduction (1985). The best work of GEORGE BERKELEY is A
Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, ed. by KENNETH
WINKLER (1982); a more popular presentation of his views is Three
Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous, ed. by ROBERT MERRIHEW
ADAMS (1979). DANIEL E. FLAGE, Berkeley’s Doctrine of Notions: A
Reconstruction Based on His Theory of Meaning (1987), discusses a central
but neglected aspect of Berkeley’s epistemology. DAVID HUME’s most
expansive discussion of knowledge is in Book I of A Treatise of Human
Nature, 2nd ed., edited by L.A. SELBY-BIGGE and rev. by P.H. NIDDITCH
(1978). A later and more accessible statement of Hume’s view is presented in
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, ed. by ERIC STEINBERG
(1977). IMMANUEL KANT, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. by NORMAN
KEMP SMITH (1929, reissued 1978; originally published in German, 1781),
is Kant’s greatest work. The best clear, brief, and accurate explanation of
Kant’s epistemology is A.C. EWING, A Short Commentary on Kant’s
“Critique of Pure Reason” (1938, reprinted 1987). An important book that
rejects the view of Kant as a phenomenalist or subjective idealist is HENRY
E. ALLISON, Kant’s Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense
(1983). For G.F.W. HEGEL’s criticisms of Kant, see his Lectures on the
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History of Philosophy, trans. from German by ELIZABETH S. HALDANE
and FRANCES H. SIMSON (1896, reprinted 1974), part III, section iii, B. A
major study on the relationship between Kant and Hegel is ROBERT B.
PIPPIN, Hegel’s Idealism: The Satisfactions of Self-Consciousness (1989).
(Contemporary): A short and readable history of Continental philosophy
is ROBERT C. SOLOMON, Continental Philosophy Since 1750: The Rise
and Fall of the Self (1988). MARTIN HEIDEGGER, Being and Time, trans.
by JOHN MACQUARRIE and EDWARD ROBINSON (1962, reissued 1978;
originally published in German, 1927), presents an alternative epistemological
scheme. JOHN DEWEY, The Quest for Certainty: A Study of the Relation of
Knowledge and Action (1929, reissued 1979), is an attack on modern
epistemology by an American pragmatist. RICHARD RORTY, Philosophy
and the Mirror of Nature (1979), a history of modern and contemporary
philosophy, has attracted great attention as an attack on classical epistemology
from an analytically trained philosopher. PAUL FEYERABEND, Against
Method, 2nd ed. (1988), advocates what he describes as “an anarchistic theory
of knowledge.” KARL R. POPPER, Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary
Approach, rev. ed. (1979), argues against a tradition that goes back at least to
Aristotle and rejects the subjective interpretation of knowledge, according to
which knowledge is located in individual people.
The 20th-century literature on perception and knowledge is vast. A good
general collection is ROBERT J. SWARTZ (ed.), Perceiving, Sensing, and
Knowing (1965, reissued 1976), which includes two important attacks upon
sense-data theory – W.H.F. BARNES, “The Myth of Sense-Data,” and G.A.
PAUL, “Is There a Problem About Sense-Data?” – and a strong defense of the
sense-datum view by C.D. BROAD, “The Theory of Sensa.” The most
important pre-World War II books on perception and knowledge are
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BERTRAND RUSSELL, The Problems of Philosophy (1911, reissued 1988),
and Our Knowledge of the External World (1926, reissued 1972); G.E.
MOORE, Philosophical Studies (1922, reissued 1970), especially the
important articles defending sense-data theory, “Some Judgments of
Perception” and “The Status of Sense-Data”; H.H. PRICE, Perception (1932,
reprinted 1981), which invokes the notion of a sense-datum in defense of the
causal theory of perception; and ALFRED J. AYER, The Foundations of
Empirical Knowledge (1940, reissued 1971), which merges sense-data theory
with the principles of logical positivism. Notable works since World War II
include GILBERT RYLE, The Concept of Mind (1949, reprinted 1984), which
defends a sophisticated form of epistemological behaviorism; RODERICK M.
CHISHOLM, Perceiving: A Philosophical Study (1957); and J.L. AUSTIN,
Sense and Sensibilia (1962), which contains a withering assault on the sense-
data theory from the standpoint of ordinary-language philosophy. Surfaces,
perception, and knowledge are discussed in THOMPSON CLARKE, “Seeing
Surfaces and Physical Objects,” in MAX BLACK (ed.), Philosophy in
America (1965); JAMES J. GIBSON, The Ecological Approach to Visual
Perception (1979, reissued 1986); and AVRUM STROLL, Surfaces (1988).
The theory of representative realism is given a sophisticated defense in
FRANK JACKSON, Perception (1977); and S. ULLMAN, “Against Direct
Perception,” Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 3(3):373-415 (September 1980),
attacks direct realism, especially J.J. Gibson’s version of that theory, from a
standpoint of modern cognitive science. A comprehensive survey of the
literature from about 1980 to 1984 on direct realism and representative
realism is to be found in EDMOND WRIGHT, “Recent Work in Perception,”
American Philosophical Quarterly, 21:17-30 (January 1984).
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Knowledge and the commonsense view of the world are discussed by
G.E. MOORE, “A Defense of Common Sense,” in his Philosophical Papers
(1959); LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN, On Certainty, trans. from German
(1969); NORMAN MALCOLM, Thought and Knowledge (1977); and JOHN
R. SEARLE, Intentionality: An Essay in the Philosophy of Mind (1983). An
excellent simple survey of the impact of computer studies, work in artificial
intelligence, neuroscience, and neurobiology on our knowledge of other minds
is found in PAUL M. CHURCHLAND, Matter and Consciousness: A
Contemporary Introduction, rev. ed. (1988).
Two excellent anthologies are HAROLD MORICK (ed.), Challenges to
Empiricism (1972, reprinted 1980); and PAUL K. MOSER and ARNOLD
VANDER NAT (eds.), Human Knowledge: Classical and Contemporary
Approaches (1987). EDMUND L. GETTIER, “Is Justified True Belief
Knowledge?” in Analysis, 23:121-23 (June 1963), is considered by many to be
a decisive refutation of the justified, true-belief analysis of knowledge.
NOAM CHOMSKY, Language and the Problems of Knowledge (1988),
discusses innateness, language, and psychology. RODERICK M.
CHISHOLM, Theory of Knowledge, 3rd ed. (1989); and ROBERT AUDI,
Belief, Justification, and Knowledge (1988), are two good introductions to
standard epistemological problems.
Philosophy of Mind
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Various formulations of Materialism can be found in
the writings of the pre-Socratic philosophers, especially Leucippus and
Democritus. PLATO, Phaedo, Timaeus, Phaedrus, and books iv and x of the
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Republic, demonstrate his dualism and his views on the nature of the soul.
ARISTOTLE, De Anima (On the Soul), is a whole treatise devoted to the
subject, expressing a qualified Materialism. THOMAS HOBBES, Leviathan
(1651), is radically Materialistic; whereas RENÉ DESCARTES, Meditationes
de prima philosophia, 2nd ed. (1642), and other writings, presents a classic
interactionist dualism. Dualism of the parallelist variety can be found in the
writings of Gottfried Leibniz. BENEDICT DE SPINOZA, Ethica (1677),
rejects both Materialism and dualism, expounding a double-aspect theory.
GEORGE BERKELEY, Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human
Knowledge (1710), provides the classic statement and defense of Idealism (in
his word, immaterialism). All the works above can be found in modern
editions.
The contemporary interest in the philosophy of mind is largely a result
of the provocative work by GILBERT RYLE, Concept of Mind (1949,
reprinted 1984). Also of great importance was the wholly new approach to all
of philosophy taken by LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN, Philosophical
Investigations, 3rd ed. (1958, reissued 1973). There followed a spate of
journal articles, some of the best of which are in the following anthologies:
MYLES BRAND (ed.), The Nature of Human Action (1970); ANTONY
FLEW (ed.), Body, Mind, and Death (1964); DONALD F. GUSTAFSON
(ed.), Essays in Philosophical Psychology (1964); HAROLD MORICK (ed.),
Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind (1970, reissued 1981); GEORGE
PITCHER (ed.), Wittgenstein: The Philosophical Investigations (1966);
ALAN R. WHITE (ed.), The Philosophy of Action (1968, reprinted 1977); and
OSCAR P. WOOD and GEORGE PITCHER (eds.), Ryle (1970). Another
useful work is DAVID M. ROSENTHAL (ed.), The Nature of Mind (1991).
Selections written from Existentialist and Phenomenological perspectives are
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found in STUART F. SPICKER (ed.), The Philosophy of the Body (1970). M.
MERLEAU-PONTY, Phenomenology of Perception (1989; originally
published in French, 1945), is also of interest. Introductory writings that
include original contributions as well as balanced assessments are GERALD
E. MYERS, Self (1969); ALAN R. WHITE, The Philosophy of Mind (1967,
reprinted 1978); JEROME A. SHAFFER, Philosophy of Mind (1968); COLIN
McGINN, The Character of Mind (1982); PETER SMITH and O.R. JONES,
The Philosophy of Mind: An Introduction (1986); ROM HARRÉ, Physical
Being: A Theory for a Corporeal Psychology (1991), on how we think about
the body in everyday life; and DALE JACQUETTE, Philosophy of Mind
(1994).
Analyses of particular mental phenomena are found in G.E.M.
ANSCOMBE, Intention, 2nd ed. (1963, reissued 1976); HARVEY RICHARD
SCHIFFMAN, Sensation and Perception, 3rd ed. (1990), a good textbook;
PETER GEACH, Mental Acts (1956, reissued 1971); STUART
HAMPSHIRE, Thought and Action, new ed. (1982); ANTHONY KENNY,
Action, Emotion, and Will (1963, reissued 1976); ALASDAIR C.
MacINTYRE, The Unconscious (1958, reissued 1976); NORMAN
MALCOLM, Dreaming (1959, reissued 1976); R.S. PETERS, The Concept of
Motivation, 2nd ed. (1969); RICHARD TAYLOR, Action and Purpose (1966,
reprinted 1973); and ALAN R. WHITE, Attention (1964).
Works dealing with the problem of personal identity include HAROLD
W. NOONAN, Personal Identity (1989, reissued 1993), a rigorous
introduction; PETER UNGER, Identity, Consciousness, and Value (1990), for
specialists; A.J. AYER, The Concept of a Person (1963); and CHRIS L.
KLEINKE, Self-Perception: The Psychology of Personal Awareness (1978).
The problem of one’s knowledge of other minds is explored in HAROLD
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MORICK (ed.), Wittgenstein and the Problem of Other Minds (1967, reissued
1981); ALVIN PLANTINGA, God and Other Minds (1967, reissued 1990);
and JOHN WISDOM, Other Minds, 2nd ed. (1965). A defense of dualism
may be found in JOHN FOSTER, The Immaterial Self (1991); and W.D.
HART, The Engines of the Soul (1988). R.J. NELSON, The Logic of Mind,
2nd ed. (1989), offers a mechanistic approach to philosophy of mind; whereas
JOHN ECCLES and DANIEL N. ROBINSON, The Wonder of Being Human:
Our Brain and Our Mind (1984), poses strong opposition to the “human-as-
machine” approach. The implications of artificial intelligence are examined in
ALAN ROSS ANDERSON (ed.), Minds and Machines (1964); HUBERT L.
DREYFUS, What Computers Can’t Do, rev. ed. (1979); DANIEL C.
DENNETT, Brainstorms (1978; reissued 1981), and Consciousness Explained
(1991); and PAUL M. CHURCHLAND, The Engine of Reason, the Seat of
the Soul (1995).
Ethics
General works:
For an introduction to the major theories of ethics, the reader should
consult RICHARD B. BRANDT, Ethical Theory: The Problems of Normative
and Critical Ethics (1959), an excellent comprehensive textbook. WILLIAM
K. FRANKENA, Ethics, 2nd ed. (1973), is a much briefer treatment. Another
concise work is BERNARD WILLIAMS, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy
(1985). There are several useful collections of classical and modern writings;
among the better ones are OLIVER A. JOHNSON, Ethics: Selections from
Classical and Contemporary Writers, 5th ed. (1984); and JAMES RACHELS
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(ed.), Understanding Moral Philosophy (1976), which places greater emphasis
on modern writers.
Origins of ethics:
JOYCE O. HERTZLER, The Social Thought of the Ancient Civilizations
(1936, reissued 1961), is a wide-ranging collection of materials. EDWARD
WESTERMARCK, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, 2 vol.,
2nd ed. (1912-17, reprinted 1971), is dated but still unsurpassed as a
comprehensive account of anthropological data. MARY MIDGLEY, Beast
and Man: The Roots of Human Nature (1978, reissued 1980), is excellent on
the links between biology and ethics; and EDWARD O. WILSON,
Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (1975), and On Human Nature (1978),
contain controversial speculations on the biological basis of social behavior.
RICHARD DAWKINS, The Selfish Gene (1976, reprinted 1978), is another
evolutionary account, fascinating but to be used with care.
History of Western ethics:
HENRY SIDGWICK, Outlines of the History of Ethics for English
Readers, 6th enlarged ed. (1931, reissued 1967), is a triumph of scholarship
and brevity. WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE LECKY, History of
European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne, 2 vol., 3rd rev. ed. (1877,
reprinted 1975), is fascinating and informative. Among more recent histories,
VERNON J. BOURKE, History of Ethics (1968, reissued in 2 vol., 1970), is
remarkably comprehensive; while ALASDAIRE MacINTYRE, A Short
History of Ethics (1966), is a readable personal view.
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Indian ethics:
SURAMA DASGUPTA, Development of Moral Philosophy in India
(1961, reissued 1965), is a clear discussion of the various schools.
SARVEPALLI RADHAKRISHNAN and CHARLES A. MOORE (eds.), A
Source Book in Indian Philosophy (1957, reprinted 1967), is a collection of
key primary sources. For Buddhist texts, see EDWARD CONZE et al. (eds.),
Buddhist Texts Through the Ages (1954, reissued 1964).
Chinese ethics:
Standard introductions to the works of classic Chinese authors
mentioned in the article are E.R. HUGHES (ed.), Chinese Philosophy in
Classical Times (1942, reprinted 1966); and FUNG YU-LAN, A History of
Chinese Philosophy, 2 vol., trans. from the Chinese (1952-53, reprinted 1983).
Ancient Greek and Roman ethics:
JONATHAN BARNES, The Presocratic Philosophers, rev. ed. (1982),
treats Greek ethics before Socrates. The central texts of the Classic period of
Greek ethics are PLATO, Politeia (The Republic), Euthyphro, Protagoras,
and Gorgias; and ARISTOTLE, Ethica Nicomachea (Nicomachean Ethics). A
concise introduction to the ethical thought of this period is provided by
PAMELA HUBY, Greek Ethics (1967); and CHRISTOPHER ROWE, An
Introduction to Greek Ethics (1976). Significant writings of the Stoics include
MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, De officiis (On Duties); LUCIUS ANNAEUS
SENECA, Epistulae morales (Moral Essays); and MARCUS AURELIUS, D.
imperatoris Marci Antonini Commentariorum qvos sibi ipsi scripsit libri XII
(The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus). From Epicurus only
fragments remain; they have been collected in CYRIL BAILEY (ed.),
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Epicurus, the Extant Remains (1926, reprinted 1979). The most complete of
the surviving works of the Epicureans is LUCRETIUS, De rerum natura (On
the Nature of Things).
Early and medieval Christian ethics:
In addition to the Gospels and Paul’s letters, important writings include
ST. AUGUSTINE, De civitate Dei (413-426; The City of God), and
Enchiridion ad Laurentium de fide, spe, et caritate (421; Enchiridion to
Laurentius on Faith, Hope and Love); PETER ABELARD, Ethica (c. 1135;
Ethics); and ST. THOMAS AQUINAS, Summa theologiae (1265 or 1266-73).
On the history of the transition from Roman ethics to Christianity, W.E.H.
LECKY, op.cit., remains unsurpassed. D.J. O’CONNOR, Aquinas and
Natural Law (1967), is a brief introduction to the most important of the
Scholastic writers on ethics.
Ethics of the Renaissance and Reformation:
Machiavelli’s chief works are available in modern translations:
NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI, The Prince, trans. and ed. by PETER
BONDANELLA and MARK MUSA (1984), and The Discourses, trans. by
LESLIE J. WALKER (1975). For Luther’s writings, see the comprehensive
edition MARTIN LUTHER, Works, 55 vol., ed. by JAROSLAV PELIKAN et
al. (1955-76). Calvin’s major work is available in JEAN CALVIN, Institutes
of the Christian Religion, trans. by HENRY BEVERIDGE, 2 vol. (1979).
The British tradition from Hobbes to the Utilitarians:
The key works of this period include THOMAS HOBBES, Leviathan
(1651); RALPH CUDWORTH, Eternal and Immutable Morality (published