Ridling Zaine. Philosophy: Then and Now. A look back at 26 centuries of thought
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Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
x
Modern Schools ........................................................................................ 318
Analytic and Linguistic Philosophy ...................................................318
General Viewpoint of Analytic Philosophy ................................ 321
Nature, Role, and Method of Analysis ........................................ 321
Status of Philosophy in the Empiricist Tradition ........................ 321
Conceptual, Linguistic, and Scientific Analysis ......................... 323
Therapeutic Function of Analysis ...............................................325
Formal versus Ordinary Language .............................................. 327
Development of Mathematical Logic ..........................................327
Divergence of Ordinary Language from Formal Logic ..............329
Interpretations of the Relation of Logic to Language ................. 329
Early History of Analytic Philosophy ............................................ 331
Reaction Against Idealism ...........................................................331
Founding Fathers: Moore and Russell .........................................333
G.E. Moore ...................................................................................334
Bertrand Russell ...........................................................................336
Logical Atomism: Russell and the Early Wittgenstein ............... 339
Logical Positivism: Carnap and Schlick .....................................341
Later History of the Movement ......................................................344
Philosophical Investigations: the Later Wittgenstein .................344
Language and Following Rules ...................................................345
Relation Between Mental and Physical Events ........................... 347
Recent Trends in England ............................................................349
Wittgensteinians ........................................................................349
Oxford Philosophers .................................................................350
Recent Trends in the United States .............................................353
Analytic Philosophy Today ......................................................... 355
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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Empiricism ............................................................................................... 356
Various Meanings of Empiricism ...................................................... 358
Broader Senses ................................................................................ 358
Stricter Senses ................................................................................. 359
Fundamental Distinctions ............................................................... 360
Degrees of Empiricism ................................................................... 362
History of Empiricism ....................................................................... 365
In Ancient Philosophy .................................................................... 365
In Medieval Philosophy .................................................................. 366
In Modern Philosophy .................................................................... 367
In Contemporary Philosophy .......................................................... 370
Criticism and Evaluation ................................................................... 371
Existentialism ........................................................................................... 375
Nature of Existentialist Thought and Manner ................................... 375
Historical Survey of Existentialism ................................................... 379
Precursors of Existentialism .............................................................. 379
The Immediate Background and Founding Fathers .......................... 381
Emergence as a Movement ................................................................ 382
Methodological Issues in Existentialism ........................................... 385
Substantive Issues in Existentialism .................................................. 387
Fundamental Concepts and Contrasts ............................................ 387
Ontic Structure of Human Existence .............................................. 387
Manner and Style of Human Existence .......................................... 390
Problems of Existentialist Philosophy ............................................... 392
Man and Human Relationships ...................................................... 392
The Human Situation in the World ................................................ 394
Significance of Being and Transcendence ..................................... 397
Problems of Existentialist Theology ................................................. 398
Social and Historical Projections of Existentialism .......................... 400
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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Idealism .....................................................................................................403
Approaches to Understanding Idealism ............................................. 404
Basic Doctrines and Principles ....................................................... 404
Basic Questions and Answers ......................................................... 407
Ultimate Reality ........................................................................... 408
The Given ..................................................................................... 408
Change ..........................................................................................409
Basic Arguments ............................................................................. 410
The Reciprocity Argument ..........................................................411
The Mystical Argument ............................................................... 411
The Ontological Argument .......................................................... 413
Types of Philosophical Idealism ........................................................ 413
Types Classed by Culture ...............................................................413
Western Types ..............................................................................414
Eastern Types ...............................................................................418
Types Classed by Branches of Philosophy .................................421
Criticism and Appraisal ......................................................................422
Materialism ...............................................................................................424
Types of Materialist Theory ............................................................... 425
Types Distinguished by Departures from the Paradigm ................ 425
Types Distinguished by Its View of History .................................. 427
Types Distinguished by Their Account of Mind ............................ 428
History of Materialism .......................................................................430
Greek and Roman Materialism .......................................................430
Modern Materialism ........................................................................431
Contemporary Materialism ............................................................. 433
Translation Central-State Theories ..............................................434
Disappearance Central-State Theories ........................................ 436
Eastern Materialism ........................................................................ 438
Substantive Issues in Materialism ...................................................... 438
Reductionism, Consciousness, and Brain .......................................438
Logic, Intentionality, and Psychical Research ............................... 440
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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Phenomenology ........................................................................................ 442
Characteristics of Phenomenology .................................................... 442
Essential Features and Variations ...................................................... 443
Contrasts with Related Movements ................................................... 444
Origin and Development of Husserl’s Phenomenology ................... 446
Basic Principles ............................................................................... 446
Basic Method .................................................................................. 449
Basic Concepts ................................................................................ 452
Later Developments ........................................................................... 455
Phenomenology of Essences .......................................................... 455
Heidegger’s Hermeneutic Phenomenology ................................... 456
Other Developments ....................................................................... 459
Dissemination of Phenomenology ..................................................... 459
Phenomenology in Various Countries ........................................... 459
In France ...................................................................................... 459
In Germany .................................................................................. 463
In Other European Countries ....................................................... 463
In the United States ...................................................................... 464
Phenomenology in Other Disciplines ................................................ 465
Conclusion .......................................................................................... 466
Positivism and Logical Empiricism ......................................................... 466
The Social Positivism of Comte and Mill ......................................... 468
The Critical Positivism of Mach and Avenarius ............................... 471
Logical Positivism and Logical Empiricism ..................................... 476
The Earlier Positivism of Viennese Heritage .................................... 477
Language and the Clarification of Meaning .................................. 478
The Verifiability Criterion of Meaning and Its Offshoots ............. 480
Other Issues ........................................................................................ 483
The Later Positivism of Logical Empiricism .................................... 486
The Status of the Formal and A Priori .............................................. 487
Developments in Linguistic Analysis and Their Offshoots .............. 489
Current Criticisms and Controversies ............................................... 492
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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Pragmatism ...............................................................................................494
Major Theses of Philosophic Pragmatism .........................................495
History of Pragmatism .......................................................................498
Antecedents in Modern Philosophy ................................................ 498
The Metaphysical Club ................................................................... 500
The Classical Pragmatists ...............................................................500
Other American Pragmatists ...........................................................507
Pragmatism in Europe ..................................................................... 508
Later Tendencies ............................................................................. 510
Evaluation of Pragmatism ..................................................................512
Rationalism ...............................................................................................513
Types and Expressions of Rationalism .............................................. 514
History of Rationalism .......................................................................518
Epistemological Rationalism in Ancient Philosophies .................. 518
Epistemological Rationalism in Modern Philosophies ..................521
Ethical Rationalism ............................................................................. 523
Religious Rationalism ........................................................................ 525
Expansion of Religious Rationalism ................................................. 525
Four Waves of Religious Rationalism ...............................................526
Status of Rationalism .........................................................................529
Religious ..........................................................................................529
Ethical ..............................................................................................529
Metaphysical ................................................................................... 530
Challenges to Epistemological Rationalism ......................................532
Utilitarianism ............................................................................................534
The Nature of Utilitarianism ..............................................................535
Basic Concepts ................................................................................... 535
Methodologies .................................................................................... 536
Criticisms ............................................................................................537
Historical Survey ................................................................................ 539
Antecedents of Utilitarianism Among the Ancients ...................... 539
Growth of Classical English Utilitarianism .................................... 539
Late 19th- and 20th-century Utilitarianism ....................................541
Effects of Utilitarianism in Other Fields ...........................................542
Summary and Evaluation ................................................................... 544
Bibliography .............................................................................................546
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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PART III: PHILOSOPHICAL ANTHROPOLOGY .................................... 588
Introduction .............................................................................................. 589
The Concept of Human Nature ................................................................ 590
Ancient Greece ................................................................................... 596
Medieval Period ................................................................................. 599
Renaissance ........................................................................................ 601
The 16th and 17th Centuries: The Rise of Scientific Thought ............... 602
Rationalism versus Scepticism .......................................................... 602
Work of Descartes .......................................................................... 604
Work of Locke ................................................................................ 607
Development of Anthropological Studies ......................................... 609
Work of Tyson ................................................................................ 609
Emergence of Cultural Anthropology ............................................ 611
The 18th-Century Enlightenment ............................................................ 612
The Natural History of Man .............................................................. 612
Man the Rational Subject ................................................................... 615
The 19th Century ...................................................................................... 620
The 20th Century: Emergence of Philosophical Anthropology .............. 625
Frege and Empiricist Anthropology .................................................. 626
Husserl and Philosophical Anthropology .......................................... 629
Work of Heidegger ......................................................................... 631
Work of Sartre and Other Existentialists ........................................ 632
Philosophical Anthropology and Theology ................................... 636
Saussure, Freud, and Antihumanism ................................................. 637
Humanism ................................................................................................ 641
Introduction .............................................................................................. 641
Origin and Meaning of the Term Humanism .......................................... 642
The Ideal of Humanitas ...................................................................... 642
Other Uses .......................................................................................... 644
Basic Principles and Attitudes ........................................................... 645
Classicism ........................................................................................... 646
Realism ..................................................................................................... 647
Critical Scrutiny and Concern with Detail ........................................ 649
The Emergence of the Individual and the Idea of the
Dignity of Man ................................................................................ 649
Active Virtue ................................................................................... 650
Early History ...................................................................................... 652
The 15th Century ......................................................................... 659
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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Leon Battista Alberti .................................................................... 660
The Medici and Federico da Montefeltro ....................................662
Later Italian Humanism ..................................................................664
Things and Words ........................................................................666
Idealism and the Platonic Academy of Florence ........................667
Machiavelli’s Realism .................................................................669
The Achievement of Castiglione ................................................. 670
Tasso’s Aristotelianism ................................................................ 671
Northern Humanism ........................................................................ 672
Desiderius Erasmus ......................................................................672
The French Humanists ....................................................................673
François Rabelais .........................................................................674
Michel de Montaigne ................................................................... 675
The English Humanists ................................................................... 676
Sidney and Spenser ......................................................................678
Chapman, Jonson, and Shakespeare ............................................680
Humanism and the Visual Arts .......................................................... 683
Realism ............................................................................................683
Classicism ........................................................................................684
Anthropocentricity and Individualism ............................................ 685
Art as Philosophy ............................................................................ 686
Humanism, Art, and Science .......................................................... 687
Humanism and Christianity ...............................................................690
Later Fortunes of Humanism ............................................................. 691
Conclusion .......................................................................................... 694
Marxism ....................................................................................................694
The Thought of Karl Marx .................................................................695
Historical Materialism ........................................................................696
Analysis of Society .........................................................................698
Analysis of the Economy ................................................................ 702
Class Struggle .................................................................................. 704
The Contributions of Engels .............................................................. 706
German Marxism After Engels ..........................................................709
The Work of Kautsky and Bernstein ..............................................709
The Radicals ....................................................................................711
The Austrians ..................................................................................712
Russian and Soviet Marxism ..........................................................713
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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Lenin ................................................................................................... 713
The Dictatorship of the Proletariat ................................................. 716
Stalin ................................................................................................... 717
Trotskyism .......................................................................................... 720
Variants of Marxism .......................................................................... 721
Maoism ............................................................................................ 721
Marxism in Cuba ............................................................................ 724
Marxism in the Third World ........................................................... 725
Marxism in the West ....................................................................... 726
Bibliography ............................................................................................. 729
PART IV: BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY ................................................ 742
Aesthetics ................................................................................................. 743
Introduction .............................................................................................. 743
The Nature and Scope of Aesthetics ........................................................ 743
Three Approaches to Aesthetics .............................................................. 745
The Aesthetic Recipient ..................................................................... 748
The Aesthetic Object .......................................................................... 750
The Aesthetic Experience .................................................................. 755
Relationship Between Form and Content ................................................ 760
The Role of Imagination .................................................................... 762
Emotion, Response, and Enjoyment .................................................. 766
The Work of Art ....................................................................................... 771
Understanding Art .............................................................................. 772
Representation and Expression in Art ............................................... 772
Symbolism in Art ............................................................................... 775
Form ................................................................................................... 779
The Ontology of Art ................................................................................. 781
The Value of Art ...................................................................................... 784
Taste, Criticism, and Judgment ................................................................ 786
Concepts Used in Aesthetic Evaluation ................................................... 788
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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The Development of Western Aesthetics ................................................794
The Contributions of the Ancient Greeks ..........................................794
Medieval Aesthetics ...........................................................................795
The Origins of Modern Aesthetics ....................................................796
The Significance of Baumgarten’s Work .......................................798
Major Concerns of 18th-Century Aesthetics .................................. 799
Kant, Schiller, and Hegel ................................................................802
Post-Hegelian Aesthetics ................................................................804
Expressionism .................................................................................... 805
Marxist Aesthetics .............................................................................. 807
Eastern Aesthetics ..............................................................................809
India .................................................................................................809
China ................................................................................................810
Japan ................................................................................................. 811
Epistemology ............................................................................................812
Introduction ...............................................................................................812
Issues of Epistemology ...................................................................... 812
Epistemology as a Discipline .............................................................812
Two Epistemological Problems ...............................................................814
Our Knowledge of the External World .............................................814
The ‘Other-Minds’ Problems .............................................................816
Implications ..............................................................................................818
Relation of Epistemology to Other Branches of Philosophy .................. 820
The Nature of Knowledge ........................................................................822
Six Distinctions of Knowledge ................................................................ 825
Occurrent versus Dispositional Conceptions of Knowledge ............ 827
A Priori versus A Posteriori Knowledge ........................................... 828
Necessary versus Contingent Propositions ........................................829
Analytic versus Synthetic Propositions ............................................. 830
Tautological versus Significant Propositions ....................................830
Logical versus Factual Propositions ..................................................831
Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description ............... 833
Description versus Justification ...............................................................836
Knowledge and Certainty ......................................................................... 838
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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Origins of Knowledge .............................................................................. 841
Innate versus Learned ........................................................................ 842
Rationalism versus Empiricism ......................................................... 843
Scepticism .......................................................................................... 846
The History of Epistemology ................................................................... 849
Ancient Philosophy ............................................................................ 849
Pre-Socratics ................................................................................... 849
Plato ................................................................................................. 850
Aristotle ........................................................................................... 854
Ancient Scepticism ............................................................................ 857
St. Augustine ...................................................................................... 860
Medieval Philosophy ......................................................................... 862
St. Anselm of Canterbury ............................................................... 862
St. Thomas Aquinas ........................................................................ 863
John Duns Scotus ............................................................................ 867
William of Ockham ........................................................................ 870
From Scientific Theology to Secular Science ................................... 871
Modern Philosophy ............................................................................ 873
Faith and Reason ............................................................................. 873
Impact of Modern Science on Epistemology ................................. 876
René Descartes ................................................................................ 877
John Locke ...................................................................................... 878
George Berkeley ............................................................................. 882
David Hume .................................................................................... 886
Kinds of Perceptions .................................................................... 886
Cause and Effect .......................................................................... 889
Substance ..................................................................................... 890
Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact ........................................ 891
Scepticism .................................................................................... 892
Immanuel Kant ................................................................................ 895
G.F.W. Hegel .................................................................................. 898
Contemporary Philosophy .............................................................. 899
Continental Philosophy ................................................................... 900
Analytic Philosophy ........................................................................ 904
Commonsense Philosophy, Logical Positivism,
and Naturalized Epistemology .................................................... 905
Perception and Knowledge ............................................................. 907
Phenomenalism ............................................................................... 912