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Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought

578

(1965, reprinted 1968). See also FRIEDRICH SOLMSEN, Plato’s Theology

(1942, reissued 1967); ANDERS WEDBERG, Plato’s Philosophy of

Mathematics (1955, reprinted 1977); RENFORD BAMBROUGH (ed.), New

Essays on Plato and Aristotle (1965); J.N. FINDLAY, Plato: The Written and

Unwritten Doctrines (1974); and WILLIAM J. PRIOR, Unity and

Development in Plato’s Metaphysics (1985).

Plato Commentaries:

Among the more useful commentaries are R.E. ALLEN, Plato’s

Euthyphro and the Earlier Theory of Forms (1970), and Socrates and Legal

Obligation (1980); A.D. WOOZLEY, Law and Obedience: The Law of

Plato’s Crito (1979); ROSAMUND KENT SPRAGUE, Plato’s Use of

Fallacy: A Study of the Euthydemus and Some Other Dialogues (1962);

B.A.F. HUBBARD and E.S. KARNOFSKY, Plato’s Protagoras: A Socratic

Commentary (1982, reissued 1984); N.R. MURPHY, The Interpretation of

Plato’s Republic (1951, reprinted 1967); R.C. CROSS and A.D. WOOZLEY,

Plato’s Republic: A Philosophical Commentary (1964, reissued 1980);

NICHOLAS P. WHITE, A Companion to Plato’s Republic (1979); JULIA

ANNAS, An Introduction to Plato’s Republic (1981); and GLENN R.

MORROW, Plato’s Cretan City: A Historical Interpretation of the Laws

(1960).

Platonism:

There are few modern English translations of the basic works of

Neoplatonism, though more will appear as a result of a project sponsored by

the National Endowment for the Humanities. PLOTINUS, The Enneads, trans.

by STEPHEN MACKENNA, 3rd ed. rev. by B.S. PAGE (1962), is not

Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought

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entirely satisfactory; it is being replaced by the Loeb Classical Library edition,

A.H. ARMSTRONG (trans.), Plotinus (1966- ), 5 vol. having appeared to

1986. Other basic works include PROCLUS, The Elements of Theology, trans.

by E.R. DODDS, 2nd ed. (1963), A Commentary on the First Book of Euclid’s

Elements, trans. by GLENN R. MORROW (1970), and Proclus: Alcibiades I,

trans. by WILLIAM O’NEILL, 2nd ed. (1971). French translations of Proclus’

commentaries have been made by A.J. FESTUGIÈRE, Commentaire sur le

Timée, 2 vol. (1966-68), and Commentaire sur la République, 3 vol. (1970).

See also PROCLUS, Théologie platonicienne, trans. by H.D. SAFFREY and

L.G. WESTERINK (1968- ), 4 vol. having appeared to 1986; JULIANUS,

Oracles chaldaïques, trans. by ÉDOUARD DES PLACES (1971); and

IAMBLICHUS, Les Mystères d’Egypte, trans. by ÉDOUARD DES PLACES

(1966). A good source of information on the Platonic and Neoplatonic

philosophers up to and including Anselm is The Cambridge History of Later

Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy, ed. by A.H. ARMSTRONG (1967;

reprinted with revised bibliographies, 1970). The bibliographies of this work

include a list of the editions of ancient and medieval sources (complete and

fragmentary), with the more important translations and modern works. PAUL

SHOREY, Platonism, Ancient and Modern (1938), remains an excellent

introduction, but much of the important work on the period between Plato and

Plotinus is still confined to technical articles; this is also true of later

Neoplatonism. J.N. FINDLAY, Plato and Platonism: An Introduction (1978),

argues that Plato developed a complete metaphysical system. JOHN DILLON,

The Middle Platonists: 80 B.C. to A.D. 220 (U.K. title, The Middle Platonists:

A Study of Platonism, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220, 1977), offers a clear and

comprehensive account of its subject; it gives the background to the best

general book on ancient Neoplatonism, R.T. WALLIS, Neo-Platonism (1972).

Many of the important problems in Plotinus are discussed by J.M. RIST,

Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought

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Plotinus: The Road to Reality (1967, reprinted 1977). Certain key ideas are

traced in RICHARD SORABJI, Time, Creation, and the Continuum: Theories

in Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages (1983). JAMES A. COULTER, The

Literary Microcosm: Theories of Interpretation of the Later Neoplatonists

(1976), is a study of Neoplatonic literary theory. A collection of articles on

pagan and early Christian Neoplatonism may be found in H.J.

BLUMENTHAL and R.A. MARKUS (eds.), Neoplatonism and Early

Christian Thought (1981); a similar collection, extending to modern times, is

DOMINIC J. O’MEARA (ed.), Neoplatonism and Christian Thought (1982).

For the earlier Judeo-Christian tradition, see ERWIN R. GOODENOUGH, An

Introduction to Philo Judaeus, 2nd ed. rev. (1963); and HARRY

CHADWICK, Early Christian Thought and the Classical Tradition: Studies

in Justin, Clement, and Origen (1966, reprinted 1984). An excellent short

summary of the thought of St. Augustine, with due attention to the Platonist

elements, is Chadwick’s Augustine (1986), and his Boethius: The

Consolations of Music, Logic, Theology, and Philosophy (1981), gives an

account of the further development of Western Neoplatonism and includes a

study of the development of Neoplatonic logic. For medieval Platonism, see

FRIEDRICH UEBERWEG, Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, vol.

2, Die patristische und scholastische Philosophie, ed. by BERNHARD

GEYER, 12th ed. (1951); ÉTIENNE GILSON, History of Christian

Philosophy in the Middle Ages (1955, reissued 1980), with valuable

bibliographical material; DAVID KNOWLES, The Evolution of Mediaeval

Thought (1962); GORDON LEFF, Mediaeval Thought: St. Augustine to

Ockham (1958, reprinted 1983); and WERNER BEIERWALTES (ed.),

Platonismus in der Philosophie des Mittelalters (1969), a collection of

important articles. All these works to some extent cover the later medieval

period. On Islamic philosophy see the brief account in W. MONTGOMERY

Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought

581

WATT, Islamic Philosophy and Theology: An Extended Survey, 2nd ed.

(1985). There is no satisfactory longer treatment in English, but for Avicenna,

see SOHEIL M. AFNAN, Avicenna: His Life and Works (1953, reprinted

1980). A sample of the Platonist contribution to Islamic thought may be seen

in FRANZ ROSENTHAL, The Classical Heritage in Islam (1975; originally

published in German, 1965). The best survey of Platonism in medieval Jewish

philosophy is GEORGES VAJDA, “Le Néoplatonisme dans la pensée juive

du moyen âge,” in G.E. WEIL (ed.), Mélange Georges Vajda (1982), pp. 407-

422. For Neoplatonic movements in Jewish Hellenistic and medieval

philosophy, see JULIUS GUTTMANN, Philosophies of Judaism: The History

of Jewish Philosophy from Biblical Times to Franz Rosenzweig, trans. from

Hebrew (1964, reissued 1973). D.P. WALKER, The Ancient Theology:

Studies in Christian Platonism from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century

(1972), reviews the Christian apologetic tradition of the Renaissance.

On Byzantine Platonism, see J.M. HUSSEY, Church & Learning in the

Byzantine Empire, 867-1185 (1937, reissued 1963); and BASILE TATAKIS,

La Philosophie byzantine, 2nd ed. (1959). A good short general account of

Renaissance Platonism in English is that by FREDERICK C. COPLESTON,

History of Philosophy, vol. 3, ch. 12 and 15 (1953); see also the essays in

PAUL OSKAR KRISTELLER, Renaissance Thought: The Classic,

Scholastic, and Humanistic Strains (1961, reprinted 1980). A good short

introduction to Renaissance Platonism in England is ERNST CASSIRER, The

Platonic Renaissance in England (1953, reissued 1970; originally published in

German, 1932). GERALD R. CRAGG (ed.), The Cambridge Platonists (1968,

reprinted 1985), is an excellent anthology, with good introductions and notes;

see also C.A. PATRIDES (ed.), The Cambridge Platonists (1969, reissued

1980). On English Christian Platonism, see WILLIAM RALPH INGE, The

Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought

582

Platonic Tradition in English Religious Thought (1926, reprinted 1977). On

the influence of Thomas Taylor, see Thomas Taylor, the Platonist: Selected

Writings, ed. by KATHLEEN RAINE and GEORGE MILLS HARPER

(1969); and F.A.C. WILSON, W.B. Yeats and Tradition (1958). RICHARD D.

McKIRAHAN, JR., Plato and Socrates: A Comprehensive Bibliography,

1958-1973 (1978), contains 4,600 unannotated entries.

Positivism and Logical Empiricism:

Literature on Classical Positivism includes J. WATSON, Comte, Mill

and Spencer (1895); W.M. SIMON, European Positivism in the Nineteenth

Century (1963); JOHN STUART MILL, Auguste Comte and Positivism

(1865); AUGUSTE COMTE, Cours de philosophie positive, 6 vol. (1830-42;

Eng. trans. and cond. by H. MARTINEAU, The Positive Philosophy of

Auguste Comte, 2 vol., 1853). For further references to the ethical views of the

classical Positivists, see the bibliography of Utilitarianism in the Encyclopedia

of Philosophy.

Many of the original classics of Logical Positivism and Logical

Empiricism, both books and articles, are listed in the ample bibliography of

A.J. AYER (ed.), Logical Positivism (1959), an anthology that contains,

among other important essays, RUDOLF CARNAP’S “Psychology in

Physical Language.” The early history of Viennese Positivism is well told in

VICTOR KRAFT, Der Wiener Kreis: Der Ursprung des Neopositivismus

(1950, 2nd ed. 1968; Eng. trans., The Vienna Circle, 1953, reprinted 1969).

Another important source is J. JOERGENSEN, The Development of Logical

Empiricism, vol. 2, no. 9 of the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science

(1951). For a brief account of the European movement of Logical Positivism

and its migration and impact in the United States, see H. FEIGL, “The Wiener

Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought

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Kreis in America,” in D. FLEMING and B. BAYLIN (eds.), The Intellectual

Migration: Europe and America 1930-1960 (1969). Books, mainly in the

foundations of the sciences, but also in philosophy of language and

epistemology, many by the leading Logical Empiricists, are listed in the ample

Bibliography and Index, in HERBERT FEIGL and CHARLES MORRIS

(eds.), International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, vol. 2, no. 10 (1969).

Of direct relevance are the major works of R. Carnap, O. Neurath, M. Schlick,

P. Frank, H. Reichenbach, E. Nagel, C.G. Hempel, R. von Mises, and Charles

Morris. For criticisms, those of KARL R. POPPER may be used; and the

intellectual autobiography of Carnap, the 26 descriptive and critical essays,

and his replies, in P.A. SCHILPP (ed.), The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap

(1963). For more recent evaluations and reactions, see P. ACHINSTEIN and

S.F. BARKER (eds.), The Legacy of Logical Positivism: Studies in the

Philosophy of Science (1969); and Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of

Science, vol. 1-5 (1956-70).

Pragmatism:

Classic works include CHARLES SANDERS PEIRCE, “The Fixation of

Belief,” “How to Make Our Ideas Clear,” and “What Pragmatism Is,” in

Collected Papers, vol. 5, ed. by C. HARTSHORNE and P. WEISS (1934);

WILLIAM JAMES, Principles of Psychology, 2 vol. (1890), The Will to

Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy (1897), Pragmatism: A New

Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking (1907), and The Meaning of Truth

(1909); JOHN DEWEY, How We Think (1910), The Influence of Darwin on

Philosophy (1910), Democracy and Education (1916), Essays in Experimental

Logic (1916), Reconstruction in Philosophy (1920, 1948), Human Nature and

Conduct (1922), Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (1938), Theory of Valuation

(1939), and Problems of Men (1946). On F.C.S. Schiller see R. ABEL, The

Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought

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Pragmatic Humanism of F.C.S. Schiller (1955), with a bibliography of

Schiller’s writings; on French and Italian pragmatists, H.S. THAYER,

Meaning and Action: A Critical History of Pragmatism, part 3 (1968), with

further bibliographical references.

For surveys of the movement, see H.S. THAYER, Meaning and Action:

A Critical History of Pragmatism (1968), with bibliography; “Pragmatism,” in

D.J. O’CONNOR (ed.), A Critical History of Western Philosophy, pp. 437-

462 (1964); and H.S. THAYER (ed.), Pragmatism: The Classic Writings

(1970), the basic writings in the Pragmatism of Peirce, James, Dewey, Mead,

and Lewis, and further bibliographical references; John Dewey, “The

Development of American Pragmatism,” in Philosophy and Civilization, pp.

13-35 (1931); and CHARLES W. MORRIS, The Pragmatic Movement in

American Philosophy (1970). JACQUES BARZUN, A Stroll with William

James (1983), is an excellent discussion of his ideas.

Rationalism:

The classic Ancient Greek work is PLATO, Meno; essential modern

works are DESCARTES, Meditationes de Prima Philosophia... (Meditations

on First Philosophy): SPINOZA, Ethics; LEIBNIZ, Monadologie

(Monadology and Other Philosophical Writings); KANT, Kritik der reinen

Vernunft (Critique of Pure Reason); 19th century. Rationalism is epitomized

in HEGEL, Phänomenologie des Geistes (Phenomenology of Mind);

FRANCIS HERBERT BRADLEY, Appearance and Reality.

For Rationalism in the theory of knowledge, see BRAND

BLANSHARD, Reason and Analysis (1962); GEORGE BOAS, Rationalism

in Greek Philosophy (1961); ERNST CASSIRER, Die Philosophie der

Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought

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Aufklärung (1932; Eng. trans., Philosophy of the Enlightenment, 1951); M.R.

COHEN, Reason and Nature: An Essay on the Meaning of Scientific Method,

2nd ed. (1953): A.C. EWING, Idealism: A Critical Survey (1934); H.H.

JOACHIM, The Nature of Truth (1906); A.E. MURPHY, The Uses of Reason

(1943); H.J. PATON, In Defence of Reason (1951); BERTRAND RUSSELL,

Problems of Philosophy (1912); W.H. WALSH, Reason and Experience

(1947).

For Rationalism in metaphysics, see the classics listed above. For two

outstanding examples from the present century, see J.M.E. McTAGGART,

The Nature of Existence, 2 vol. (1921-27), together with the commentary of

C.D. BROAD, Examination of McTaggart’s Philosophy, 2 vol. (1933-38); and

ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD, Process and Reality (1929). For

Rationalism in ethics, see WILLIAM WOLLASTON, The Religion of Nature

Delineated (1722); and KANT, Die Metaphysik der Sitten (1785; Eng. trans.,

The Metaphysics of Morals, 1799). For early forms of the appeal to self-

evident rules, see RICHARD PRICE, A Review of the Principal Questions in

Morals (1758). For later types of Rationalism, see G.E. MOORE, Principia

Ethica (1903); W.D. ROSS, The Right and the Good (1930), and Foundations

of Ethics (1939); BRIAN ELLIS, Rational Belief System (1979).

For Rationalism in religion, excellent standard works are: W.E.H.

LECKY, History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in

Europe, 2 vol. (1865); A.D. WHITE, History of the Warfare of Science with

Theology in Christendom, 2 vol. (1910); J.M. ROBERTSON, A Short History

of Freethought, Ancient and Modern, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1906); A.W. BENN,

History of English Rationalism in the Nineteenth Century, 2 vol. (1906); J.B.

BURY, A History of Freedom of Thought (1913). SIGMUND FREUD, Die

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Zukunft einer Illusion (1927; Eng. trans., The Future of an Illusion, 1928),

offers a psychoanalytic study of religious belief.

Utilitarianism:

The classical texts are JEREMY BENTHAM, An Introduction to the

Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789; 2nd ed., 1823); JOHN STUART

MILL, Utilitarianism (1861; 4th ed., 1871); HENRY SIDGWICK, The

Methods of Ethics (1874; 7th ed., 1907); G.E. MOORE, Principia Ethica

(1903) and Ethics (1912); D.D. RAPHAEL (ed.), British Moralists: 1650-

1800, 2 vol. (1969), containing selected readings.

Useful anthologies include MARY PETER MACK (ed.), A Bentham

Reader (1969); J.B. SCHNEEWIND (ed.), Mill’s Ethical Writings (1965);

SAMUEL GOROVITZ (ed.), Utilitarianism: John Stuart Mill with Critical

Essays (1971).

Secondary, historical, and contemporary studies include DAVID

LYONS, Jeremy Bentham (1972) ERNEST ALBEE, A History of English

Utilitarianism (1902, reprinted 1957); LESLIE STEPHEN, The English

Utilitarians, 3 vol. (1900, reprinted 1968); ELIE HALEVY, La Formation du

radicalisme philosophique, 3 vol. (1901-04; Eng. trans., The Growth of

Philosophical Radicalism, 1928); J.P. PLAMENATZ, The English

Utilitarians (1949); J.B. SCHNEEWIND (ed.), Mill: A Collection of Critical

Essays (1968); STEPHEN TOULMIN, An Examination of the Place of

Reason in Ethics (1950); P.H. NOWELL-SMITH, Ethics, ch. 16 (1954);

RICHARD BRANDT, Ethical Theory, ch. 12-15 (1959); DAVID LYONS,

Forms and Limits of Utilitarianism (1965); JAN NARVESON, Morality and

Utility (1967); MICHAEL D. BAYLES (ed.), Contemporary Utilitarianism

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(1968); J.J.C. SMART, An Outline of a System of Utilitarian Ethics (1961).

DONALD REGAN, Utilitarianism and Cooperation (1980), a presentation of

a new utilitarian theory with a good survey of disputes among utilitarians.