Potter T.D., Colman B.R. (co-chief editors). The handbook of weather, climate, and water: dynamics, climate physical meteorology, weather systems, and measurements
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HANDBOOK OF
WEATHER, CLIMATE,
AND WATER
HANDBOOK OF
WEATHER, CLIMATE,
AND WATER
Dynamics, Climate,
Physical Meteorology, Weather
Systems, and Measurements
Edited by
THOMAS D. POTTER
BRADLEY R. COLMAN
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
Copyright # 2003 by John Wiley and Sons; Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
The handbook of weather, climate, and water : dynamics, climate
physical meteorology, weather systems, and measurements = co-chief
editors, Thomas D. Potter and Bradley R. Colman.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-471-21490-6 (acid-free paper)
1. Dynamic meteorology. 2. Atmospheric physics. 3. Weather.
I. Potter, Thomas D., 1955- II. Colman, Bradley Roy.
QC880.H34 2003
551.51
0
5- -dc21
2003003584
Printed in the United States of America.
10987654321
CONTENTS
Preface xix
Dedication and Acknowledgments xxi
Contributors xxiii
SECTION 1 DYNAMIC METEOROLOGY 1
Contributing Editor: Joseph Tribbia
1 OVERVIEW—ATMOSPHERIC DYNAMICS 3
Joseph Tribbia
2 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES AND GOVERNING EQUATIONS 7
Murry Salby
1 Description of Atmospheric Behavior 7
2 Mass Continuity 9
v
3 Momentum Budget 11
4 First Law of Thermodynamics 18
3 Circulation, Vorticity, and Potential Vorticity 21
Paul J. Kushner
1 Introduction 21
2 Circulation and Vorticity: Definitions and Examples 21
3 Potential Vorticity: Definition and Examples 28
4 Dynamical Considerations: Kelvin’s Circulation Theorem,
Rotation, and PV Dynamics 31
5 Conclusion 35
6 Appendix: Mathematical Summary 37
4 EXTRATROPICAL ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATIONS 39
Kyle Swanson
1 Introduction 39
2 Quasi-Geostrophic Theory 40
3 Baroclinic Instability and Frontogenesis 43
4 Stationary Planetary Waves 49
5 Isentropic Potential Vorticity 53
5 DYNAMICS OF THE TROPICAL ATMOSPHERE 57
Gerald Meehl
1 Thermally Direct Circulations and Monsoons 57
2 El Nin
˜
o–Southern Osc illation 59
3 Subseasonal Tropical Atmospheric Waves 63
6 TURBULENCE 69
Jackson R. Herring
1 Two-Dimensional and Quasi-Geostrophic Turbulence 69
2 Energy and Enstrophy Cascade 74
3 Coherent Structures 76
4 Stratified Three-Dimensional Turbulence and Waves 77
7 PREDICTABILITY AND CHAOS 83
Jeffrey B. Weiss
1 Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos 85
2 Stochastic Dynamics 88
3 Ensemble Forecasting 89
4 Seasonal to Climate Predictability 91
vi CONTENTS
8 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF NUMERICAL
WEATHER PREDICTION 95
Eugenia Kalnay
1 Introduction 95
2 Primitive Equations, Global and Regional Models, and
Nonhydrostatic Models 97
3 Data Assimilation: Determination of Initial Conditions for
NWP Problem 99
4 Operational Numerical Prediction 103
5 The Future 105
SECTION 2 THE CLIMATE SYSTEM 117
Contributing Editor: Robert E. Dickinson
9 OVERVIEW: THE CLIMATE SYSTEM 119
Robert E. Dickinson
1 The Atmosphere 119
2 Global Average Energy Balance 120
3 The Atmospheric Boundary Layer 123
4 Atmospheric Hydrological Cycle 124
5 Climate of the Stratosphere 124
6 The Cryosphere 126
7 The Ocean 126
10 THE OCEAN IN CLIMATE 129
Edward S. Sarachik
1 Introduction 129
2 Properties of the Ocean and Processes in the Ocean 129
3 How the Ocean Interacts with the Atmosphere to Affect the
Climate 130
4 Measuring the Ocean 131
5 Modeling the Ocean 131
6 The Future of the Ocean in Climate 132
11 PROCESSES DETERMINING LAND SURFACE CLIMATE 135
Gordon Bonan
1 Introduction 135
2 Surface Energy Fluxes and Temperature 136
3 Hydrologic Cycle 138
CONTENTS viiCONTENTS vii
4 Vegetation 139
5 Coupling to Atmospheric Models 140
12 OBSERVATIONS OF CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE
FROM REAL-TIME MEASUREMENTS 141
David R. Easterling and Thomas R. Karl
1 Introduction 141
2 Is the Planet Getting Warmer? 142
3 Is the Hydrologic Cycle Changing? 142
4 Is the Atmospheric=Oceanic Circulation Changing? 146
5 Is the Weather and Clim ate Becoming More Extreme or Variable? 147
6 Is the Radiative Forcing of the Planet Changing? 148
7 What Can we do to Improve Our Ability to Detect Climate and
Global Changes? 150
13 WHY SHOULD WE BELIEVE PREDICTIONS OF
FUTURE CLIMATE? 155
John Mitchell
1 Introduction 155
14 THE EL NIN
˜
O–SOUTHERN OSCILLATION (ENSO) SYSTEM 163
Kevin Trenberth
1 ENSO Events 163
2 The Tropical Pacific Ocean–Atmosphere System 164
3 Interannual Variations in Climate 165
4 Mechanisms of ENSO 169
5 Observing ENSO 170
6 ENSO and Seasonal Predictions 172
SECTION 3 PHYSICAL METEOROLOGY 175
Contributing Editor: GREGORY TRIPOLI
15 PHYSICAL ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE 177
Gregory Tripoli
1 Overview 177
2 Atmospheric Thermodynamics 178
viii CONTENTS
16 MOIST THERMODYNAMICS 207
Amanda S. Adams
1 Latent Heats— Kirchoff’s Equation 207
2 Gibbs Phase Rule 209
3 Phase Equilibrium for Water 210
4 Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 213
5 General Theory for Mixed-Phase Processes within
Open Systems 217
6 Enthalpy Form of the First–Second Law 223
7 Humidity Variables 225
8 Temperature Variables 226
9 Entropy Variables for Moist Air 228
10 Pseudo-adiabatic Process (
u
ep
) 232
11 Neglecting Heat Storage 233
12 Hydrostatic Balance and Hypsometric Equation 234
13 Dry and Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rates ðG
d
and G
m
) 235
17 THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS IN THE ATMOSPHERE 237
Amanda Adams
1 Atmospheric Thermodynamic Diagrams 237
2 Atmospheric Static Stability and Applications of Thermodynamic
Diagrams to the Atmosphere 241
18 MICROPHYSICAL PROCESSES IN THE ATMOSPH ERE 255
Robert M. Rauber
1 Introduction 255
2 Atmospheric Aerosol 256
3 Formation of Individual Cloud Droplets and Ice Crystals in
the Atmosphere 262
4 Formation of Rain in Warm Clouds 274
5 Growth of Ice particles In Atmosphere 287
19 RADIATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE: FOUNDATIONS 301
Robert Pincus and Steven A. Ackermann
1 Overview 301
2 Foundations 303
3 Sources of Radiation 306
4 Absorption and Emission in Gases: Spectroscopy 310
CONTENTS ix
5 Full Radiative Transfer Equati on, Including Absorption,
Emission, and Scattering 321
6 Single Scattering 323
7 Simplifying the Radiative Transfer Equation 332
8 Solving the Radiative Transfer Equation Simply 335
9 Solving Radiative Transfer Equation Completely 338
10 From Theory to Applications 341
20 RADIATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE: OBSERVATION S AND
APPLICATIONS 343
Steven A. Ackermann and Robert Pincus
1 Overview 343
2 Boundary Conditions 343
3 Radiative Heating Rates 351
4 Top-of-Atmosphere Radiation Budgets 360
5 Radiation and the Greenhouse Effect 370
6 Satellite Remote Sensing 376
21 THE CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS 387
Arthur L. Rangno
1 Introduction 387
2 What is a Cloud? 387
3 Origin of the Present-Day Cloud Classification 388
4 The Classification of Clouds 389
22 ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY AND LIGHTNING 407
Walter A. Lyons and Earle R. Williams
1 Global Electrical Circuit 407
2 What is Lightning? 409
3 Human Cost of Lightning 412
4 Economic Costs of Lightning 413
5 Climatology of Lightning 414
6 Lightning Detection 416
7 Lightning Protection 417
8 Impacts of Lightning Upon the Middle Atmosphere 420
9 Theories On Transient Luminous Events 425
10 Why Study TLEs? 427
x CONTENTS