Potter T.D., Colman B.R. (co-chief editors). The handbook of weather, climate, and water: dynamics, climate physical meteorology, weather systems, and measurements
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23 WEATHER MODIFICATION 433
Harold D. Orville
1 Introduction 433
2 Modification Methods 436
3 Some Scientific and Technological Advances in the Past 25 Years 438
4 Concluding Remarks 449
24 ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS 453
Craig F. Bohren
1 Introduction 453
2 Color and Brightness of Molecular Atmosphere 454
3 Polarization of Light in Molecular Atmosphere 464
4 Scattering by Particles 467
5 Atmospheric Visibility 474
6 Atmospheric Refract ion 476
7 Scattering by Single Water Droplets 483
8 Scattering by Single Ice Crystals 489
9 Clouds 494
Glossary 497
SECTION 4 WEATHER SYSTEMS 501
Contributing Editor: John W. Nielsen-Gammon
25 OVERVIEW FOR WEATHER SYSTEMS 503
John W. Nielsen-Gammon
1 Introduction 503
2 Foundations of Weather Forecasting 503
3 Developing an Understanding of Weather Systems 505
4 Weather and Energy 505
5 Forecasting 507
6 Conclusion 508
26 LARGE-SCALE ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEMS 509
John W. Nielsen-Gammon
1 Introduction 509
2 Horizontal Balance 509
3 Vertical Balance 510
4 Potential Vorticity 511
CONTENTS xi
5 Fronts 513
6 Extratropical Cyclones 519
7 Upper-Tropospheric Jets and Troughs 531
8 Water Vapor Imagery 539
27 WINTER WEATHER SYSTEMS 543
John Gyakum
1 Introduction 543
2 Cold Air 544
3 Wind 545
4 Precipitation 549
5 Summary 559
28 TERRAIN-FORCED MESOSCALE CIRCULATIONS 561
John Horel
1 Introduction 561
2 Impact of Terrain Upon Wind 562
3 Influence of Terrain Upon Precipitation 567
4 Other Impacts of Surface Inhomogeneities 570
5 Predictability of Terrain-Forced Mesoscale Circulations 571
29 SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS AND TORNADOES 575
H. Brooks, C. Doswell III, D. Dowell, D. Jorgenson, R. Holle,
B. Johns, D. Schultz, D. Stensrud, S. Weiss, L. Wicker, and D. Zaras
1 Introduction 575
2 Climatology of Severe Thunderstorms 575
3 Cloud Processes and Storm Morphology 582
4 Mesoscale Convective Systems, Mesoscale Convective
Complexes, Squall Lines and Bow Echoes 587
5 Supercells 592
6 Tornadoes 597
7 Radar Characteristics of Severe Storms 604
8 Severe Storms Forecasting 611
30 TROPICAL PRECIPITATING SYSTEMS 621
Edward J. Zipser
1 Differences Between Tropical and Midlatitude Convection 621
2 Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCSs) 624
3 Squall Line and MCS Structure 624
xii CONTENTS
4 Squall Lines, MCCs, or Disorganized MCSs 628
5 Evolution of MCSs 628
6 Candidate Systems that Organize Rainfall and Main Contributors
to Rainfall in Selected Regions 628
7 Distribution of Tropical=Subtropical Rainfall and Mesoscale
Rain Systems 632
31 HURRICANES 641
Frank D. Marks, Jr.
1 Introduction 641
2 Climatology 646
3 Tropical Cyclogenesis 650
4 Basic Structure 652
5 Motion 665
6 Interaction with Atmospheric Environment 666
7 Interaction with the Ocea n 670
8 Tropical Cyclone Rainfall 672
9 Energetics 673
10 Tropical Cyclone–Related Hazards 674
11 Summar y 675
32 MODERN WEATHER FORECASTING 677
Lawrence B. Dunn
1 Introduction 677
2 Forecast Process 679
3 Forecasting 12h to 7 Days 681
4 Forecasting 0 to 12h 685
SECTION 5 MEASUREMENTS 689
Contributing Editor: Thomas J. Lockhart (deceased)
33 ATMOSPHERIC MEASUREMENTS 691
Thomas J. Lockhart
34 CHALLENGES OF MEASUREMENTS 695
Thomas J. Lockhart
1 Ethics 695
2 Generation and Implementation of a Consensus on Standards
for Surface Wind Observations 697
CONTENTS xiii
3 Uncertainty, Accuracy, Precision, and Bias 701
4 Value of Common Sense 707
35 MEASUREMENT IN THE ATMOSPHERE 711
John Hallett
1 Combination of Measurements 712
2 Particle Measurement 713
3 Instrumentation and Modeling 717
4 Complexity and Diversity 719
36 INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT IN THE NATIONAL
WEATHER SERVICES 721
Joseph W. Schiesl
1 Introduction 721
2 Temperature and Humidity 722
3 Temperature Siting Standards 726
4 Precipitation 727
5 Precipitation Standards 730
6 Wind 731
7 Pressure 733
8 Cloud Height Equipment 735
9 Visibility 736
10 Calibration, Maintenance and Quality Control of Instruments 739
11 Telemetry and Automation 739
12 Importance of Standardization and Continuity 741
37 CONSEQUENCE OF INSTRUMENT AND
SITING CHANGES 747
Joseph W. Schiesl and Thomas B. Mckee
1 Introduction 747
2 Early Modifications 747
3 New Concerns 750
4 Initial Tucson Test Results 751
5 Overall Test Results 752
6 An Overconservative Data Quality Check 754
7 Relocation Bias 756
8 Data Continuity Studies 758
9 Interface With Outside Groups 760
xiv CONTENTS
38 COMMERCIAL RESPONSE TO MEASUREMENT NEEDS:
DEVELOPMENT OF WIND MONITOR SERIES OF
WIND SENSORS 763
Robert Young
1 Background 763
2 Development 764
3 Plastic Fabrication 766
4 Customer Input 768
5 Icing Problems 769
6 Widespread Acceptance 769
7 Specialized Models 771
8 Design Improvements 771
9 Junior Model 772
10 Continuing Design Modi fications 773
11 Testing & Certification 774
12 Marine Model 775
13 Serial Output 776
39 COMMERCIAL RESPONSE TO MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM DESIGN 779
Alan L. Hinckley
1 Introduction 779
2 Measurement System 780
3 Datalogger 782
4 Data Retrieval 792
5 Summary 798
40 DESIGN, CALIBRATION, AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
NEEDS OF NETWORKS 801
Scott J. Richardson and Fred V. Brock
1 Introduction 801
2 System Design 803
3 Calibration 805
4 Quality Assurance 808
41 DATA VALIDITY IN THE NATIONAL ARCHIVE 813
G. W. Goodge
1 Introduction 813
2 Temperature 814
CONTENTS xv
3 Precipitation 816
4 Snow 820
5 Wind 822
6 Weather 825
7 Summary 826
42 DEMANDS OF FORENSIC METEOROLOGY 829
W. H. Haggard
1 Search for the Truth 829
2 Data needed 829
3 Case Examples 832
4 Witness Credibility 837
43 SURFACE LAYER IN SITU OR SHORT-PATH
MEASUREMENTS FOR ELECTRIC UTILITY OPERATIONS 841
Robert N. Swanson
1 Introduction 841
2 Recent History of Meteorological Requirements by Electric Utilities 841
3 Measurement Require ments 842
4 Measurement Guidelines 843
5 Data Acquisition 843
6 Example of Meteorological Requirements by an Electric Utility 844
7 Example of Data Processing Procedures 846
8 Conclusions 847
44 INDEPENDENT AUDITING ASPECTS OF MEASUREMENT
PROGRAMS 849
Robert A. Baxter
1 Monitoring Plan 849
2 Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPP) 850
3 Case Studies 851
4 Conclusion 858
45 REGULATORY APPROACHES TO QUALITY ASSURANCE
AND QUALITY CON TROL PROGRAMS 861
Paul M. Fransoli
1 Background 861
2 Standardization and Regulatory Guidance 863
3 Primary Elements 864
xvi CONTENTS
46 MEASURING GLOBAL TEMPERATURE 869
John R. Christy
1 Proxy Record of Surface Temperatures 871
2 Instrumental Record of Surface Temperatures 871
3 Borehole Temperatures 874
4 Upper Air Temperatures 874
5 Conclusion 879
47 SATELLITE VERSUS IN SITU MEASUREMENTS AT
THE AIR–SEA INTERFACE 885
Kristina B. Katsaros
1 Sea Surface Temperature 885
2 Surface Wind 889
48 RADAR TECHNO LOGIES IN SUPPORT OF FOR ECASTING
AND RESEARCH 895
Joshua Wurman
1 Introduction 895
2 Basic Radar Operation 896
3 Radar Observations of Selected Phenomena 908
4 Goal: True Wind Vectors 908
5 Data Assimilation into Computer Models 914
6 New and Nonconventional Technologies 914
49 BASIC RESEARC H FOR MILITARY APPLICATIONS 921
W. D. Bach, Jr.
1 Military Perspective 921
2 Research Issues 922
3 Prototype Measureme nt Systems 924
4 Current Measurement Capabilities 925
5 Conclusions 925
50 CHALLENGE OF SNOW MEA SUREMENTS 927
Nolan J. Doesken
1 Introduction—Characteristics and Importance of Snow 927
2 Measurements of Snow 929
3 Properties of Snow That Make Basic Measurements Difficult 931
4 Procedures for Measuring Snowfall, Snow Depth and
Water Content 932
CONTENTS xvii
5 Contribution of Technology to Snow Measurements 943
6 Summary of Snow Data Continuity 947
7 Sources of Specialized Snow Data 948
INDEX 951
xviii CONTENTS
PREFACE
The Handbook of Weather, Climate, and Water provides an authoritative report at the
start of the 21st Century on the state of scientific knowledge in these exciting and
important earth sciences. Weather, climate, and water affect every person on earth
every day in some way. These effects range from disasters like killer storms and
floods, to large economic effects on energy or agriculture, to health effects such as
asthma or heat stress, to daily weather changes that affect air travel, construction,
fishing fleets, farmers, and mothers selecting the clothes their children will wear that
day, to countless other subjects.
During the past two decades a series of environmental events involving weather,
climate, and water around the globe have been highly publicized in the press: the
Ozone Hole, Acid Rain, Global Climate Change, El Nin˜os, major floods in Bangla-
desh, droughts in the Sahara, and severe storms such as hurricane Andrew in Florida
and the F5 tornado in Oklahoma. These events have generated much public interest
and controversy regarding the appropriate public policies to deal with them. Such
decisions depend critically upon scientific knowledge in the fields of weather,
climate, and water.
One of two major purposes of the Handbook is to provide an up-to-date account-
ing of the sciences that underlie these important societal issues, so that both citizens
and decision makers can understand the scientific foundation critical to the process
of making informed decisions. To achieve this goal, we commissioned overview
chapters on the eight major topics that comprise the Handbook: Dynamics, Climate,
Physical Meteorology, Weather Systems, Measu rements, Atmospheric Chemistry,
Hydrology, and Societal Impacts. These overview chapters present, in terms under-
standable to everyone, the basic scientific information needed to appreciate the
major environmental issues listed above.
The second major purpose of the Handbook is to provide a comprehensive refer-
ence volume for scientists who are specialists in the atmospheric and hydrologic areas.
In addition, scientists from closely related disciplines and others who wish to get an
authoritative scientific accounting of these fields should find this work to be of great
xix
value. The 95 professional-level chapters are the first comprehensive and integrated
survey of these sciences in over 50 years, the last being completed in 1951 when the
American Meteorological Society published the Compendium of Meteorology.
The Handbook of Weather, Climate, and Water is organized into two volumes
containing eight major sections that encompass the fundamentals and critical topic
areas across the atmospheric and hydrologic sciences. This volume contains
sections on the highly important topics of Dynamics, Climate, Physical Meteor-
ology, Weather Systems, and Measurements. Dynamics describes the nature and
causes of atmospheric motions mostly through the laws of classical Newtonian
physics supplement ed by chaos theory. Climate consists of the atmosphere,
oceans, cryosphere and land surfaces interacting through physical, chemical, and
biological processes. Physical Meteorology presents the laws and processes
governing physical changes in the atmosphere through chapters on atmospheric
thermodynamics, atmospheric radiation, cloud physics, atmospheric electricity and
optics, and other physical topics. The section on Weather Systems describes remark-
able advances in weather forecasting gained by an increased understanding of
weather systems at both large and small scales of motion and at all latitudes. The
section on Measurements describes the many advances in the sensing of atmospheric
conditions through constantly improving instrumentation and data processing.
To better protect against weather, climate, and water hazards, as well as to
promote the positive benefits of utilizing more accurat e information about these
natural events, society needs improved predictions of them. To achieve this, scien-
tists must have a better understanding of the entire atmospheric and hydrologic
system. Major advances have been made during the past 50 years to better under-
stand the complex sciences involved. The se scientific advances, together with vastly
improved techno logies such as Doppler radar, new satellite capabilities, numerical
methods, and computing, have resulted in greatly improved prediction capabilities
over the past decade. Major storms are rarely missed nowadays because of the
capability of numerical weather-prediction models to more effectively use the data
from satellites, radars, and surface observations, and weather forecasters improved
understanding of threatening weather systems. Improvements in predictions are
ongoing. The public can now rely on the accuracy of forecasts out to about five
days, when only a decade or so ago forecasts were accurate to only a day or two.
Similarly, large advances have been made in understanding the climate syste m
during the past 20 years. Climate forecasts out beyond a year are now made routinely
and users in many fields find economic advantages in these climate outlooks even
with the current marginal accuracies, which no doubt will improve as advances in
our understanding of the climate system occur in future years.
To m Potte r
Brad Colman
Color images from this volume are available at ftp://ftp.wiley.com/public/sci_tech_med/weather/.
xx PREFACE