Potter T.D., Colman B.R. (co-chief editors). The handbook of weather, climate, and water: dynamics, climate physical meteorology, weather systems, and measurements
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fronts (Continued )
occluded, 513–514
relationship to cyclones, 513–517
surface, 513–514
upper level, 513–514
warm, 513–514
dynamical aspects, 517–519
deformation and convergence effects,
517–519
direct and indirect circulations,
517–519
severe convective weather, 517–519
vertical wind shear (thermal wind),
517–519
Froude number, 565
Frye test, 830
Fujita scale, 567–577
GARP, 621–623
gas constant, 186–187
GATE, 621–623
genesis hypothesis, 610
schematic of, 610
geopotential coordinates, 14
geostrophic flow, 509
Gibbs free energy, 203–204
Gibbs phase rule, 209–210
glacial–interglacial regimes, 91
glaciers, 870
Global Climate Model (GCM), 156
climate evolution and future, 159
coupled ocean-atmosphere GCM, 157
models reproduce past and current
climates, 159
statistics of model outputs, 158
Global Climate Observing System
(GCOS), 150–151
global electric circuit, 407–409
downward fair-weather electric field,
407–409
Earth negative charge, 407–409
ionospheric potential, 407–409
global energy balance, 120–123
Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS),
132–133
global temperature (see temperature,
global)
global warming, 142
stratosphere, 142
surface temperature, 142
uncertainties in conclusions, 142
gravity, 12
gravity waves, 565
green flash, 482–483
greenhouse effect, 370–373
H0-83, NWS standard operational
hygrothermometer
calibrated standard comparison
instruments each site, 751
early system modifications, 747–750
further system modifications, 751
improved aspiration rate, 751
insulated sensor from solar radiation,
751
optical block, 747–750
aspirator improvements, 747–750
corrosion elimination, 747–750
new dewpoint mirror, 747–750
purpose of testing H0-83, 747
quality control check, 754–756
stable electronics, 751
Tucson warm bias, 750–751
test results, 751–753
use of data as index of climate change,
747
WMO aviation standard, 747
Hadley cell, 57
Hadley circulation, 4
Hadley, 3
hail, formation processes, 435–436
embryo, 435–436
growth to hailstone, 435–436
hail, suppression, 438
beneficial competition, 438
early rainout, 438
hail, 577–578, 595–596
economic losses, 577–578
in supercells, 577–578
observational procedures, 577–578
size criteria, 577–578
halocarbons, 148–149
halos, 492–494
hazardous weather, 595–596
haze droplets, 267
heat capacity of soils, 136
heat capacity, 191–193
constant volume and constant pressure,
191–193
heat flux, 19
diffusive component, 19
radiative component, 19
Helmholtz free energy, 203–204
Holocene (last 10K years), 871
mid–Holocene period (6K years ago),
871
956
INDEX
homogeneous mixing, 278–280
Howard, Luke, 388
hurricanes (see also tropical cyclones), 505,
641–645
centrifugal forces in, 642–645
Coriolis effects on, 642–645
cyclonic core in, 642–645
definition of, 641
energy sources of, 641
eye, 642–645
eyewall, 642–645
formation (Emanuel and Rodino
1986–1987), 505
gradient balance in, 642–645
horizontal balance of forces, 642–645
horizontal pressure gradient force in,
642–645
intensity scale, 641
Saffir–Simpson scale, 641
pendulum day, 642–645
potential vorticity in, 642–645
Rossby number, 642–645
Rossby radius of deformation,
642–645
spiral bands of precipitation, 642–645
strongest winds location in, 641
tropical storms, 641
structure and evolution of, 642–645
vertical balance of forces, 642–645
warm core in troposphere, 641
hydrological cycle, 124, 138–139
energy exchange processes, 124
evaporation and evapotranspiration, 124
latent heat, sensible heat, rain
interception by foliage, 138–139
precipitation, 124
precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff,
storage, 138–139
throughfall, stemflow, snowmelt,
infiltration, 138–139
transport, storage, phase changes of
water, 124
water vapor concentrations, 124
hydrological cycle, climate changes in,
142–146
evaporation changes in Russia, 146
evaporation changes in U.S., 146
global cloud amounts have increased,
144–145
land surface diurnal temperature range,
146
mid-to-high latitudes, 143–144
sub-tropic, 143–144
water vapor over N.A. and in tropics, 146
hydrostatic approximation, 97
hydrostatic balance, 40, 234, 510–511
hydrostatic stability, 583–584
Hygrothermometer Working Group
(HWG), 751–752
confirmation of Tucson warm bias,
751–752
testing program at several other sites,
751–752
hypsometric equation, 234
ice cores, 870
ice nucleation, 274
de-activation, 274
large aerosols, 274
pre-activation, 274
ice nuclei (IN), 434–435
ice nuclei (IN), concentrations, 273
dust advection, 273
high near jet streams, 273
pre-activation in cold upper troposphere,
273
stratospheric meteor bombardment, 273
variable function of supersaturation, 273
ice nuclei (IN), functions, 272
condensation, 272
contact, 272
deposition, 272
immersion, 272
ice nuclei (IN), 434–435
ice particles, concentrations, 274, 295–296
ice multiplication mechanisms,
295–296
observations far exceed theoretical
numbers, 295–296
rapid ice nucleation at cloud boundaries,
295–296
ice particles, growth of, 287–294
by accretion, 287–294
by diffusion, 287–294
ideal gas, 184
ideal gas law, 3
inertial coordinates, 13
inertial range, 74
inertio-gravity waves, 65
inflow band, 602–604
inhomogeneous mixing, 278–280
initial conditions, sensitivity to, 85
initialization problem, 102
4D nudging, 102
instrument design, 779
principles of good system design,
779–780
INDEX 957
instrument design (Continued )
eliminate uncertainties, 779–780
high quality minimizes total cost,
779–780
lightning damage, 779–780
meet customer needs, 779–780
memory failures, 779–780
power supply failures, 779–780
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC)
data bases of global temperatures, 871
internal energy, 18
International Standards Organization (ISO),
692, 701–707
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ),
57, 631
migration of, 632–636
relationship to tropical cyclones, 650
irreversible process: entropy increases,
194–203
Isentropic Potential Vorticity (IPV; see also
potential vorticity), 53
balanced motion assumptions, 55
elliptic operators, 55
conservation of, 53
diabatic production of, 55
link to mass field, 56
inversion, 55
isentropic process, 194–203
ISO Guide (1993), 701–705
Guide Annex B definitions of
meteorological terms, 703
ISO Technical Advisory Group on
Meteorology (TAG 4), 701–707
isothermal processes, 182, 194–203
jet streams, 120, 531–540, 535, 539
blocks, 531–540
definitions, 531–540
geographical locations, 531–540
idealized patterns of
convergence=divergence, 536
jet streaks, 535
polar jet, 531–540
satellite loops of heights=winds, 540
subtropical jet, 531–540
upper tropospheric, 531–540
water vapor satellite imagery shows
locations, 539
Junge layer, 259
Kelvin circulation theorem, 31
Kelvin equation, 266
Kelvin scale, 183
Kelvin waves in ocean, 64
Kirchoff’s equation, 208–209
Klystron transmitter, 899–900
Kohler equation, 267
Kona low, 630
Kraichnan, 5
La Nina, 163
Lagrangian coordinates, 7
Lagrangian derivative following air parcel,
8
Lamarck, Jean, 388
land breezes, 562–564
Laplace deterministic system, 83
lapse rates, 584
of environment, 584
of parcel, 584
latent heat of condensation, 510–511
latent heat, 207–209
condensation, 207–209
melting, 207–209
laws of mechanics and thermodynamics, 7
length scale, 39
level of free convection (LFC), 245–248,
584
lidar
Doppler lidar (NOAA=ERL=ETL),
924–925
measures radial wind speeds at 30 m
resolution, 924–925
University of Iowa lidar
teams with FMCW to better observe
ABL, 924–925
volume imaging lidar, 924–925
observations of backscatter, 924–925
lifting condensation level (LCL), 245–248,
584
light, polarization of, 464–467
degree of polarization of scattered light,
471–473
degree of polarization, 464–467
dispersion of polarization, 471–473
molecular scattering, 464–467
neutral points, 464–467
Babinet, Brewster and Arago points,
464–467
scattering plane, 464–467
vertical distributions of particles,
471–473
lightning, 409–412, 580–582
bolt from the blue, 412
cloud-to-ground (CG) events, 410
958
INDEX
continuing current flow, 411
dart leaders, 411
deaths from, 575, 580–582
definition, 409–412
duration of discharge, 411
in Mesoscale Convective Systems
(MCS), 637
InterCloud (IC) CG, 410
intra-cloud (IC) events, 409–412
National Lightning Detection Network
(NLDN), 580–582
negative and positive strikes, 410
other sources of lightning, 412
return stroke, 411
stepped leaders, 411
streamers, 411
summer maximum frequency of, 581
theories of charge separation, 409–412
U.S. frequency of cloud-to-ground
flashes, 580–582
U.S. regional frequency, 581
variable peak current, 411
lightning, climatology, 414–415
CG flash density: in US 20 million=year,
414–415
geographical differences over U.S.,
414–415
worldwide flash rate, 414–415
lightning, detection, 416–417
accuracy, 416–417
data availability, 416–417
efficiency, 416–417
future capabilities, 416–417
methods of, 416–417
magnetic direction finding (MDF),
416–417
time of arrival (TOA), 416–417
lightning, impact of, 412–413
deaths=injuries underestimated, 412
annual economic losses in U.S., 413–414
second major cause of weather-related
deaths, 412–413
worldwide deaths 1000 per year, 412
lightning, impacts on middle atmosphere,
420–425
cloud-to-space reports, 420–425
other labels: blue jets, halos, elves, trolls,
421
sprite name adopted 1994, 421
lightning, protection from, 417–419
30 : 30 rule, 418
CPR saves victims, 418
fatality percentage, 418
flash-to-bang time, 418
lightning rods, 419
next flash distances, 418
safest locations, 418
unsafe locations, 418
Little Ice Age (1400 to 1800), 871
causes of, 871
longwave thermal radiation, 120–123
Lorenz attractor butterfly diag ram, 87
Lorenz equations, 86
Lorenz predictability: deterministic or
statistical, 84–85
Lorenz, Ed, 5
Lorenz–Mie theory, 326–327
low power microprocessors, 784–785
Lyapunov exponent (LE), 87
mean exponential er ror growth rate, 87
Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO), 4,
63–64, 632
Magnetron, 899–900
material circuit, 31
measurement systems, 780–782, 785
accuracy, 787
clock requirements, 785
dedicated systems, 780–782
microprocessor-based, 780–782
programmable systems with flexible
electronics, 780–782
measurements in the atmosphere
combinations of measurements, 712–713
establishing standards, 697–698
ethics, 695
improved technology, 691–693
instrument response, 712
mass production of instruments,
691–693
measurement uncertainty, 699
past instrument design and siting,
691–693
performance audits, 708
siting biases, 708
uncertainty, accuracy, precision, bias,
701–707
wind effects on pressure transducers, 708
measurements in the atmosphere, particle
measurements, 713–717
characteristics of particles, 713–717
concentration range, 713–717
shape distribution, 713–717
size range, 713–717
combinations of random events,
713–717
fall speeds, 713–717
INDEX 959
measurements in the atmosphere, particle
measurements (Continued )
ice particles, 713–717
concentrations, 713–717
densities, 713–717
habit spectra, 713–717
sizes, 713–717
mixing effects in lateral shears, 713–717
multi-peaked size spectra at a point,
713–717
multiple habits, 713–717
nucleation and g rowth conditions,
713–717
range of space scales, 713–717
sampling duration, 713–717
Shannon maximum entropy principle,
713–717
time=space scales of sample very
important, 713–717
types of par ticles, 713–717
Mesoscale Convective Complexes (MCC),
588–589
contrasts between Amazon and Congo,
633
definition, 588–589
distribution, 633
from IR satellite, 633
lifecycle, 588–589
typical synoptic situations, 588–589
mesocyclone, types, 597
classic, 597
high precipitation (HP) and flash floods,
597
low precipitation (LP), 597
schematic, 597
mesocyclones, 592–597
structure and evolution, 593–594
tilting of horizontal vorticity,
593–594
vertical wind shear, 593–594
Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCS),
587–592
distributions, 633–636
forecasting, 589–592
from passive microwave observations,
633–636
global occurrences, 587–592
in high rainfall areas, 633–636
life cycle, 589–592
lightning observations, 637, 424
movements, 587–592
persistent vortices, 589–592
rear inflow jet, 589–592
size, 587–592
upper flow patterns, 589–592
Mesoscale Convective Systems, in tropics,
624
cold pools at low levels, 624
global occurrences, 624
horizontal scale, 624
lifetimes, 624
updrafts and downdrafts, 624
mesoscale weather systems, 561, 571–572
dependence on physical characteristics
of terrain, 564–567
dynamically driven flows, 564–567
forced by large-scale instabilities, 561
orographic effects on precipitation, 561
terrain forced, 561, 571–572
predictability of, 571–574
thermally driven flows, 562–564
along valley flows, 563
mountain-valley circulations, 563
sea and land breezes, 562–564
slope flows, 563
meta-data, 813
all relevant info related to its collection
& processing, 813
definition, 813
kinds of, 813
automatic, 813
data transfer, 813
definition, 813
exposure, 813
instrument type, 813
maintenance and calibration, 813
manual, 813
National Climatic Data Center (NCDC),
813
METAR code, 825–826
meteorological extremes, 813
areal extent, 813
frequency, 813
location, 813
magnitude, 813
prediction components, 813
meteorological requirements for electric
utilities, 841–842
for cloud seeding to enhance snowpack,
843
guidelines, 843
measurement guidelines, 843
above ABL, 843
sensor siting is project specific, 843
Mie scattering, 326–327
military applications of weather
atmospheric dynamics, 923–924
atmospheric wave propagation, 923
960
INDEX
electro-optical & IR systems limited
by small-scale turbulence,
923
chemical and biological attacks occur in
ABL, 921
Combat Multiplier, 921
detecting chemical and biological agents,
922
finer scales of motion by large eddy
simulations, 923–924
military needs accurate weather forecasts
at all scales, 923–924
small scale models do not provide
accurate forecasts, 923–924
smart weapons affected by turbulence
and turbidity, 922
theories of small scale motions in ABL,
923–924
mixed Rossby-gravity wave, 52, 65
mixed-phase processes, 217–223
mixing condensation level (MCL),
245–248
mixing ratio, 225–226
moist adiabatic lapse rate, 235, 239
pseudo-adiabatic lines, 239
momentum budget, 11
in a rotating reference frame, 13
monsoon
lateral, 57
transverse, 57
mountain-valley circulations, 563
Mt. Washington, New Hampshire, 769
National Centers for Environmental
Prediction (NCEP), 105–109
National Climatic Data Center (NCDC),
708
precipitation publications, 820
Hourly Precipitation Data (HPD), 820
Local Climate Data (LCD), 820
National Institute of Science and
Technology (NIST) calibrations,
707–709
National Lightning Detection Network
(NLDN), 580–582
Navier Stokes equations, 12
Newton’s second law for fluid momentum,
31
Newton’s second law of motion, 3
Newtonian fluid, 12
North Atlantic Oscillation
climate, 146–147
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC),
692
nucleation, homogeneous
in humid air, 268
in supercooled water droplets, 268
of haze droplets in cirrus, 270
of ice crystals, 268, 271, 274
rate equation, 269
threshold temperature, 270
nucleation, 262–274
energy barrier, 262–274
equilibrium radius, 262–274
Helmholtz free energy change, 262–274
heterogeneous, 262–274
homogeneous, 262–274
Kelvin equation, 262–274
nucleation rate, 262–274
saturation ratio, 262–274
numerical weather prediction (NWP),
103–104, 508
daily weather forecasts from, 95
discrete space and time steps, 98
future improvements in NWP, 110–112
global and regional models, 98
boundary conditions, 99
mesoscale high-resolution models, 99
nested models, 99
short-term forecasts, 99
major NCEP models and computers,
105–109
pattern of improvements, 103–104
verification scores, 96
Nyquist interval, 906
Nysher wind shield, 936
observing networks
audits, 866
calibration and quality assurance factors,
801–802
calibration needs, 807–808, 865
communication systems, 804–806
data monitoring, 810–811
data processing, 866
date retrieval, 841
depends on desired accuracy of
observations, 807–808
design factors, 801–802, 806
desired accuracy of observations,
807–808
documentation, 811–812
electric utility operations, 841, 844–846
field intercomparisons, 810
installation (testing, location,
documentation), 864–867
instrument exposure, 864–867
instrument platforms, 803–804, 864–867
INDEX 961
observing networks (Continued )
lab calibrations, 810
lab test instruments prior to field install,
807–808
maintenance, 866
NIST standards, 807–808, 865
objectives of quality assurance program,
808–812
Oklahoma Mesonet, 802
operator training, 864–867
power source, 806
proper quality assurance procedures,
841
rates of change more important than
absolute values, 807–808
reports, 866
routine operations, 865
sensor siting guidelines, 841, 864–867
simple, effective, low-cost tests, 807–808
traceability of sensor calibration to NIST,
807–808
observing networks, quality assurance,
861
regulatory measurement programs, 862
oceans, 126–127, 129
amount of CO
2
, 129
areal extent, 129
coupling to atmosphere, 126–127
density, 126–127, 129
depth, 129
effects on Earth climate, 129
heat capacity, 129
mass, 129
properties of, 129
salinity average and changes, 130
sea ice effects, 130
storage, release and transport of thermal
energy, 126–127
thermohaline circulation, 126–127, 130
oceans, interactions with atmosphere, 130
causes of climate variabilities, 131
passive and active modes, 130
oceans, measurements of, 131
knowledge of ocean circulations, 131
limitations, 131
oceans, modeling of, 131–132
coupled ocean=atmosphere models,
131–132
exchanges with atmosphere, 131–132
ocean-only models, 131–132
parameterizations, 131–132
Oklahoma Mesonet, 802
averaging time, 802
communication system, 802
number of stations, 802
parameters measured, 802
site management frequency, 802
omega equation, 508, 530–531
applications of, 508
forcing of upward motion, 530–531
temperature advection, 530–531
vertical derivative of vorticity advection,
530–531
optical depth, 318
Oroshi wind, 567
Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR),
65–67
proxy for tropical convection, 65–67
spectral peaks show tropical waves,
65–67
Ozmidov scale, 77–78
ozone, 120, 148–149
pancake shear layers, 77–78
parameterization of sub-grid physical
processes, 98
perihelion, 345–347
perturbation enstrophy, 45
physical meteorology, 178
physical processes, 181
adiabatic, 182
change to system, 181
cyclic, 182
diabatic, 182
isothermal, 182
reversible, 182
Pineapple express, 549–559
Plan Position Indicator (PPI), 908
Planck function, 307
plane of the ecliptic, 345–347
Poisson equation, 194
polar lows, 526–528
pollen counts, 870
pollutants, long range transport, 846
potential temperature, 19, 194, 228–232
potential temperature, conservation of, 41
potential vorticity (PV), 4, 29, 30, 35,
511–512
ageostrophic circulations, 41
anomalies near tropopause, 511–512
definition, 511–512
in tropical cyclones, 642–645
quasi-geostrophic potential vorticity
(QGPV), 41
reasons to use PV, 511–512
tropical cyclone analysis, 666–669
variations related to distant pressure and
wind, 511–512
962
INDEX
precipitation, 567–568
orographic influence on, 567–568
convection-triggering flows, 568
dependence on height, relief, aspect of
local terrain, 567–568
high-level heat source during day,
567–568
obstacles to flow, 567–568
role in forming clouds and
precipitation, 567–568
precipitation in the tropics, 632–636
doldrums, 632–636
in Africa, 632–636
migration of ITCZ, 632–636
in Asia, 632–636
over land, 632–636
over ocean, 632–636
total rainfall distribution, 632–636
normal seasonal cycle of, 632–636
TRMM, 632–636
tradewinds and subtropical highs,
632–636
precipitation systems in the tropics,
628–632
essential ascending motion, 628–632
frequency and amount of, 628–632
orographic forcing, 629
easterly waves, 629
eastward traveling disturbances,
629
land-sea breeze forcing, 629
slow moving MCSs, 629
squall lines, 629
synoptic scale forcings, 629
precipitation, measurements of, 727–729,
816–820
ASOS precipitation sensor problems,
817
bucket and stick, 727–729
non-continuous parameter, 816–820
NWS precipitation gages, 817
Fisher–Porter automated, 817
standard 8 inch, 727–729, 817
Universal weighing, 817
precipitation standards, 730
proper siting and mounting, 730
representative catch desirable, 730
wind effects on catch, 730
quality assurance, 816–820
redundancy and reality checks, 816
spatial variability, 816–820
tipping bucket gage, 727–729
universal gage, 727–729
predictability, 88–89
ensembles, 89–90
loss of, 90
operational, 90
pressure, measurements of, 733–734
aneroid barometer, 733–734
barograph, 733–734
Fortin tube, 733–734
pressure transducers, 733–734
pumping phenomena, 733–734
sensor siting, 733–734
Tor ricelli column of mercury,
733–734
units of pressure, 733–734
primitive equation model, 97
proxy records of atmospheric near-surface
temperature, 871
aerosols, 871
average at widely scattered sites, 871
large variability due to volcanic dust,
solar output, 871
proxy records, 870
pseudo-adiabatic process, 232–233
pseudomomentum, 45
Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPP),
850–851
assures work will satisfy performance
criteria, 850–851
Audit Plan, 850–851
calibration, backup & reporting methods,
850–851
data collection methods, 850–851
specific instrumentation, 850–851
quantum mechanics assumptions, 307
quasi-geostrophic equations, 5, 40
quasi-geostrophic theory (QG), 5, 40
radar applications
combination of Doppler & simulations,
604–610
Doppler radar, 604–610
future advances, 610–611
polarization, 610–611
limitations, 604–610
storm structure, 604–610
radar, antenna design tradeoffs, 898–899
tradeoff between penetration of beam vs.
low cost=easy care, 898–899
WSR choice of 10 cm effective but
costly, 898–899
radar, basic operation, 896–908
principle, 896–908
INDEX 963
radar, basic operation (Continued )
return signal delay time gives distance
to target, 896–908
strength of signal gives precipitation
intensity, 896–908
targets, 896–908
radar, beam propagation, 902
beam spread, 902
locating tornadoes and microbursts is
difficult, 902
over-the-horizon radar visibility, 902
radar, beam scattering, 900–902
physical mechanism, 900–902
Bragg scattering, 900–902
ground or sea surface clutter, 900–902
raindrops polarized by radar beam,
900–902
scattering also from bugs, birds,
density gradients, 900–902
side lobe radiation, 900–902
radar, choice of wavelength, 898–899
ability of antenna to focus radiation
depends on size, 898–899
attenuation proportional to rain intensity,
898–899
beamwidth a function of wavelength and
antenna diameter, 898–899
typical wavelengths, 898–899
use longest possible, 898–899
radar, data processing, 903
Doppler velocity, 904–905
gates, 903
minimum power detectable, 904
Nyquist interval (NI), 906–907
Prop to diameter E6, 903–904
Pulse Repetition Time (PRT), 905–906
radial component only, 904–905
range ambiguity (RA), 905–906
receiver and signal processing system,
903
reflectivity, 903–904
spectral width, 905
velocity ambiguity, 906–907
Z-R relationships, 903–904
radar, mobile, 916–918
airborne or shipborne, 918
Doppler-on-Wheels (DOW), 916–918
radar, polarization: dual=multiple, 914–916
linear depolarization ratio, 914–916
particle type, rain rate, 914–916
shape of rain=ice particles, 914–916
radar, scanning techniques and displays,
908
constant altitude PPI (CAPPI), 908
Plan Position Indicator (PPI), 908
Range Height Indicator (RHI), 908
radar, transmitter types, 899–900
Klystrons more costly but produce
stable, coherent signals, 899–900
Magnetrons cheaper but signals drift
rapidly, 899–900
most modern radars use magnetrons,
899–900
radiation hazards minimal, 900
typical peak power 40 kW–1 MW,
900
radar, weather, 895–896
operational uses, 895–896
crucial for short-term forecasts
(<6 hrs), 895–896
mesoscale forecasts will benefit from
radar obs, 895–896
research uses, 896
large and small scales, 896
microphysical processes, 896
severe and quiescent weather, 896
upper air and ABL, 896
radar, wind retrievals
dual=multiple Doppler calculations,
911–913
horizontal winds, 911–913
continuity equation, 911–913
single Doppler estimates, 911
true 3D wind vectors, 908–911
radiation, net at Earth’s surface, 135
cooling by convection or
evapotranspiration, 135
sensible or latent heat, 135
radiative heating rates, 351–357
in clear and cloudy skies, 351–352
volcanic aerosols, 357–359
water vapor, O
3
,CO
2
, 351–352
radiative transfer equation, 316–323,
332–341
absorption, 321–323
complete solution of, 338–341
adding-doubling method, 338–341
eigenvector solutions, 338–341
in 2D and 3D, 338–341
computing flux, 335–338
Eddington solution, 335–338
emission, 321–323
mass scattering coefficient, 321–323
phase function, 321–323
scattering, 321–323
simple solutions of, 335–338
simplification, 332–334
two stream methods, 335–338
964
INDEX
Radio Acoustic Sounding System (RASS),
920
gives temperature of vertical column,
920
rain, heavy, 595–596
rainbows, 485–488
big drops contribution, 485–488
primary, secondary, 485–488
rainbow angle, 485–488
supernumerary bows, 485–488
the glory (or pilot’s bow or anticorona),
488–489
Range Height Indicator (RHI), 908
Rankine scale, 184
Raoult’s law, 266
Rayleigh theory, 326
rear inflow jet, 589–592
refraction, 476–483
extra-terrestrial mirages, 476–483
green flash, 482–483
terrestrial mirages, 476–483
relative humidity, 225–226
reversible process: entropy constant,
194–203
reversible process, 182
Reynold’s transport theorem, 8
Reynolds number, 74, 280–284
Rossby number, 39, 71, 642–645
Rossby radius of deformation, 72–73,
642–645
Rossby waves, 43, 49, 61, 65, 537
breaking, 52
critical latitude, 52
dispersive group velocity, 43, 538
edge waves, 47
external, 53
large scale, 49
meridional group velocity, 50
mixed Rossby-gravity wave, 52
phase velocity, 43
propagation of, 49
ray tracing theory, 50
refraction of, 52
restoring mechanism, 43
stationary planetary, 50
stratospheric sudden warmings, 49
tropospheric=stratospheric air exchange,
50
turning latitude, 52
vertical propagation, 52
wave train, 52
Rossby–Haurwitz waves, 537
propagation mechanisms, 537
rotating coordinates, 26
Saffir–Simpson scale, 641
satellite remote sensing, 376–383
of atmospheric moisture patterns,
384–385
of atmospheric temperature profiles,
381–384
of clouds, 379–381
of surface, 376–378
satellites
GOES Satellite Data Collection System,
739–741
Sawyer–Eliassen equation, 517–519
scattering by clouds, 494–496
bright and dark clouds, 495–496
optical thickness, 494–496
scattering by particles, 467–473
angular dependence, 469–471
magnitude, 467–473
wavelength dependence, 468–469
scattering by single ice crystals, 489–494
scattering by single water droplets,
483–489
Schwarzchild’s equation, 320–321
sea breezes, 562–564
Sea Surface Temperature (SST), 885–888
in-situ observations, 885–888
bucket temperatures, 885–888
dissemination of data via WMO,
885–888
drifting=moored buoys, 885–888
NDBC network along U.S. east coast,
886
networks of moored buoys, 886
Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO) in
tropical SW Pacific, 886
water intake temperatures, 885–888
seasonal forecasting, 91
second law, 194–203
second law of thermodynamics, enthalpy
form, 223–224
second law of thermodynamics,
194–203
seeder-feeder mechanism, 568
severe convection, 250–251
CAPE and CIN roles, 250–251
skew T 7 log P diagram, 239–241
sky color, 454–455
blue sky, 456–457
early explanations: da Vinci, Al Kindi,
Newton, 455
Rayleigh, 455
skylight, spectrum and color, 457–458
dominant wavelength, 457–458
optical thickness, 458–462
INDEX 965