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Quality of Service (QoS)ofAutomation 41.3 Energy-Saving Automation 725

Productivity

Lot size

Job-shop

controls

Manual

machining

Standard CNC

100

Fig. 41.6 Advantage of job-shop controls. Lathe with job-shop control

or milling) or programmable with interactive graphic

support. Therefore the knowledge and experience of

skilled workers can be challenged and division of work

between programming and operating is unnecessary,

saving costs while avoiding organizational effort and in-

creasing ﬂexibility. Job shop controls with PC operation

systems can be integrated into an enterprisenetwork, al-

lowing for ﬂexible manufacturing. It provides not only

easy programming at the machines but also archiving

of programs and loading of programs from other loca-

tions. Moreover connection to tool data management

systems allows for quick search and ordering of the

right tool at the workplace. Figure 41.6 demonstrates

the range of job-shop controls with respect to lot size

and productivity.

As an example of affordable automation in small

enterprises, consider how to enhance the productivity

and ﬂexibility of a manufacturing process to accept-

able costs. The main points in this respect are work

organization and the technology used. Both of these

aspects have to be considered together because they

affect one another. Investing in a new, or at least bet-

ter, technology is connected to decisions for machines

with enhanced productivity and also to producing bet-

ter quality that customers will be willing to pay for.

Considering machine tools or manufacturing cells or

systems it is not always necessary to replace them com-

pletely. In many enterprises one can ﬁnd conventional

machines in a very good state but meanwhile not suit-

able to produce parts of high quality in an adequate

time. Conventional machine tools such as lathes or con-

ventional milling machines usually have a machine bed

with good quality and stiffness; they should not be

thrown onto the scrapheap. These machines could be

equipped at least with electronic measurement devices

as linear rules to improve the manufactured quality with

respect to required tolerances. The next improvement

could be reﬁtting with numerical control. This certainly

requires servo drivesfor each controllable axiswhile the

drive of the spindle will be controlled using a frequency

converter. Numerically controlled machines of the ﬁrst

generation sometimes only need a new control to bring

them up to today’s standards, a process called up-

grading. Sometimes it is desired to retain conventional

handling of machines despite the retroﬁt, i. e., moving

tables and saddles mechanically with hand wheels in

addition to numerically controlled servo drives. This fa-

cilitates the manufacturing of simple parts while using

the advantages of CNC control to manufacture geomet-

rically complex work pieces.

41.3 Energy-Saving Automation

41.3.1 Energy Generation

With energy waste levels in the process of electric-

ity generation running at 66%, this sector has great

potential for improvement. Using standard technology,

only 25–60% of the fuel used is converted into elec-

trical power. Combined-cycle gas turbines (CCGT) are

among the most efﬁcient plants now available, as com-

pared with old thermal solid-fuel plants, some of which

were commissioned in the 1950s.

Part E 41.3

726 Part E Automation Management

Table 41.1 Energy savings and consumption (TWh/year) [41.36]

Electricity savings

achieved in the period

1992–2008

Consumption in 2003 Consumption in 2010

(with current policies)

Consumption in 2010,

available potential

(with additional

policies)

Washing machines 10–11 26 23 14

Refrigerators, freezers 12–13 103 96 80

Electrical ovens – 17 17 15.5

Standby 1–2 44 66 46

Lighting 1–5 85 94 79

Dryers – 13.8 15 12

Domestic electrical storage

water heaters

– 67 66 64

Air-conditioners – 5.8 8.4 6.9

Dishwashers 0.5 16.2 16.5 15.7

Total 24.5–31.5 377.8 401.9 333.1

The biggest waste in the electricity supply chain

(generation–transmission–distribution–supply) is the

unused heat which escapes in the form of steam,

mostly by heating the water needed for cooling in the

generation process. The supply chain is still largely

characterized by central generation of electricity in

large power plants, followed by costly transport of the

electricity to ﬁnal consumers via cables. This trans-

port generates further losses, mainly in distribution.

Thus, centralized generation has advantages in terms

of economies of scale, but also wastes energy. Decen-

tralized generation of electricity and heat in regional

or local units (including single buildings) could be of

advantage. Such units are under development based on

gas, or fuel cells in buildings. A combination of wind

energy, solar energy, hydropower, energy from biomass,

and fossil fuels in small units could provide electrical

energy and heat in regions isolated from grids. These

hybrid energy concepts are demanding advanced, but

affordable, controls.

41.3.2 Residential Sector

Households accounted for 17% of the estimated gross

energy consumption of 1725Mtoe in 2005 in the

European Union (EU), according to Eurostat energy

balances. This amount could be reducedif peoplewould

change their habits to:

•

Switch off appliances that are not in use, as standby

consumes energy

•

Select energy-efﬁcient domestic appliances

•

Use low-energy light bulbs

•

Increase levels of recycling

•

Monitor energy consumption

•

Ensure systems are operating correctly

•

Adjust the central heating set-point, and ensure cor-

rect distribution of sensors

•

Double glazing of windows against heat and cold

•

Insulation of walls

•

etc.

However, people are lazy; automatic control can give

support by managing the consumption of household ap-

pliances. The so-called intelligent home could provide

solutions, but anyway people have to be aware of un-

necessary energy consumption. Table 41.1 below shows

possible savings of electrical energy in households of

the EU.

41.3.3 Commercial Building Sector

Energy and therefore costs can be saved with suitable

and intelligent automation. Energy management con-

trol systems (EMCS) are centralized computer control

systems intended to operate a facility’s equipment ef-

ﬁciently. These systems are still evolving rapidly, and

they are controversial. Some applications are appropri-

ate for computer control systems, and many are not.

A range of simpler alternatives are available.

Advantage of building automation systems (BAS)

includes monitoring, report generation, and remote con-

trol of equipment. Pitfalls are system cost, skilled

stafﬁng requirements, software limitations, vendor sup-

port, maintenance, rapid obsolescence, and lack of

standardization.

BAS are also known by a variety of other names, in-

cluding energy management systems (EMS)andsmart

Part E 41.3

Quality of Service (QoS)ofAutomation 41.3 Energy-Saving Automation 727

Table 41.2 Three levels of observing and improving energy consumption [41.37]

Policy

Formal energy policy

and implementation plan.

Commitment and active

involvement of top

management

Energy policy set and

reviewed by middle

management

Technical staff have

developed their own

guidelines

Structure

Energy management

fully integrated into

management structure

and systems from

board level down

A management structure

exists but there is no

direct reporting to top

management

Staff and budget

resources not linked to

energy spend

Informal and

unplanned

Increase

commitment

Improving

performance

Resources

Full time staff and budget

resources related to

energy spend at

recommended levels

Informal allocation of

staff time and no specific

energy budget

building controls. A system typically has a central com-

puter, distributed microprocessor controllers (called

local panels, slave panels, terminal equipment con-

trollers, and other names), and a digital communication

system. The communication system may carry signals

directly between the computer and the controlled equip-

ment, or there may be tiers of communications.

Building automation can be a very effective way

to reduce building operational costs and improve over-

all comfort and efﬁciency of a building. There are

many deﬁnitions and examples of building automa-

tion. Simply put, building automation uses software to

connect and control electrical functions in a building.

Those functions usually include but are not limited to

the heating, ventilation, air-conditioning (HVAC)and

lighting systems. For further reading see [41.15]and

Chap.62.

41.3.4 Transportation Sector

Transport accounts of 20% of the estimated gross en-

ergy consumption of 1725Mtoe in the European Union

in 2005, according to Eurostat energy balances. Reduc-

ing this consumption is not only a technical problem,

but mainly a political one. Road transport of goods

receives direct or indirect subventions. The mostly

state-owned railway organizations in Europe are not

able to install a common system to reduce inefﬁcient

road transport. Low-cost air travel is increasing air

pollution. Public transport does not always offer an ac-

ceptable alternative to individual car use.

To get people or goodsfrom A toB there are various

means of transport, via air, road, rail, or water. Today no

interoperable information system is available. however,

this would be an assumption for an efﬁcient transport

management system. These problems of information

control could be solved.

Of course, achievementsof automaticcontrol inmo-

tor management and electrical drives reducing energy

consumption can be seen. Hybrid drives in cars with

automatic control of power management are favored.

However, moreeffortis necessary to ﬁnd acceptableand

cost-effective solutions.

41.3.5 Industrial Sector

An enterprise should always observe and improve its

energy consumption at all levels: the energy improve-

ment cycle. A precondition for entering the cycle is

commitment at all levels of the enterprise. Table 41.2 il-

lustrated an uncommitted enterprise on the bottom row

and an enterprise that is highly committed to energy

improvement on the top row. It is important that the

enterprise demonstrates commitment to sustained en-

ergy improvement before the process of delivering that

improvement can begin.

The energy improvement strategy (Fig.41.7) need

not be long or complex but it is vitally important, as

it will set the direction of all efforts to manage and

improve energy consumption. Essentially there are two

ways to cut energy bills (Fig.41.7):

•

Pay less for energy

•

Consume less energy.

To reduce energy consumptionit is necessaryto analyze

all possible sources of wasted energy: buildings, ma-

chines and equipment, production processes of goods,

recycling of wasted energy (heat, etc.), and transport of

Part E 41.3

728 Part E Automation Management

Reduce overall energy costs to the business

Reduce energy

consumed per

unit of product

Pay less per unit

of energy

Negociate

lowest unit

price for

energy

Tariff

management

Fuel

switching

Combined

heat and

power

Improve

energy

efficiency

Improve

process

efficiency

Fig. 41.7 Energy improvement strat-

egy in an enterprise [41.37]

raw material, premanufactured parts, and manufactured

products.

Developed automatic controlconcepts can help(less

energy-consuming drives), but control concepts for an

enterprise as a whole may be of advantage in terms of

energy consumption reduction.

The use ofenergy in a country, in the residential sec-

tor, the commercial building sector, the transportation

sector, and the industrial sector, inﬂuences the com-

petitiveness of the economy, the environment, and the

comfort of the inhabitants.

While energy efﬁciency measures energy inputs for

a given level of service, energy intensity measures the

efﬁcientuse of energy. Itis deﬁned as the ratio of energy

consumption to a measure of the demand for services

(e.g., number of buildings, total ﬂoor space, number of

employees), or more generally the energy required to

generate US$1000 of gross domestic product (GDP)

(Fig.41.8).

High energy intensity indicates a high price or cost

of converting energy into GDP, while low energy inten-

sity indicates a lower price or cost of converting energy

into GDP.

Many factors inﬂuence an economy’s overall energy

intensity. It may reﬂect requirements for general stan-

dards of living and weather conditions in an economy.

It is not untypical for particularly cold or hot climates

to require greater energy consumption in homes and

1990 2000 2010 2020

Mtoe Energy intensity 1990 = 100

2000

1750

1500

1250

1000

750

500

250

100

Renewables

Nuclear

Natural gas

Oil

Solids

Energy intensity

Fig. 41.8 Estimated total energy consumption by fuel

and energy intensity 1990–2020 of the 25 EU member

states [41.38]

workplaces for heating or cooling. A country with an

advanced standard of living is more likely to have

a wider prevalence of consumer goods and thereby be

impacted in its energy intensity compared with a coun-

try with a lower standard of living.

41.4 Emerging Trends

41.4.1 Distributed Collaborative

Engineering

Supporting cost-effective human–human collaboration

in networked enterprises is a challenge for cost-oriented

automation. With the trend to extendthe designand pro-

cessing of products over different and remotely located

factories, the problem arises of how to secure effective

collaboration of the involved workforce. Usual face-to-

face work will be replaced at least partly if not totally

Part E 41.4

Quality of Service (QoS)ofAutomation 41.4 Emerging Trends 729

by computer-mediated collaboration. The development

and implementation of information and communica-

tion technology, suitably adapted to the needs of the

workforce and facilitating remotely distributed collab-

orative work, is a challenge to engineers. Information

mediated only via vision and sound is insufﬁcient for

collaboration. In designing and manufacturing it is of-

ten necessary to have the parts in your hands. To grasp

a part at a remote site requires force (haptic) feedback

in addition to vision and sound. Consider, for example,

remote service for maintenance.

Bruns et al. [41.11,39, 40] developed low-cost de-

vices based on mixed-reality concepts for web-based

learning as a ﬁrst step to distributed collaborative work.

Mixed-reality environments as deﬁned in [41.41]

are those in which real-world and virtual-world objects

are presented together on a single display. Mixed-

reality techniques have proven valuable in single-user

applications. Meanwhile, research has been done on ap-

plications for collaborative users. Mixed reality could

be useful for collaborative distributed work because it

addresses two major issues: seamlessness and enhanc-

ing reality [41.42].

Bruns [41.11] notes that most existing collabora-

tive workspaces strictly separate reality and virtuality;

for example, when controlling a remote process, one

can sense and view speciﬁc system behavior, control

the system by changing parameters, and observe the

process by video cameras. The process, as a ﬂow of en-

ergy – controlled by signals and information – is either

real or completely modeled in virtuality and simulated.

In mixed-reality distributed environments, information

ﬂow can cross the border between reality and virtual-

ity in an arbitrary bidirectional way. Reality may be

the continuation of virtuality, or vice versa, which pro-

vides a seamless connection between the two worlds.

This bridging or mixing of reality and virtuality opens

up some new perspectives for learning or training en-

vironments [41.12] as well as for distributed work

environments.

The connection between the real and the virtual

world is mediated through an energy interface called

a hyperbond. In dynamic systems the system compo-

nents are connected through energy (or power) transfer.

If a real dynamic system is to be extended digitally

with software running on a computer (virtual dynamic

system) analog sensor signals have to be converted into

digital values forthe softwareside ofthe interface.Flow

in the opposite direction requires digital values from

the software to be converted into analog signals that

generate effort and ﬂow to the real dynamic system.

Sense/Generate

Reality

Physical

phenomena

S/G

Energy

D/A/D

interface

Digital

information

Virtual

reality

software

Fig. 41.9 Architecture of a hyperbond connection

Figure 41.9 describes in general the interface be-

tween the real and the virtual world: Effort (e)andﬂow

( f) are sensed (S) (or generated (G)), providing voltage

(u) and current (i) (or effort and ﬂow in the opposite),

an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter provides digital in-

formation for the software, or a digital-to-analog (D/A)

converter converts digital information into analog sig-

nals to drive a generating mechanism for effort and ﬂow

to the real world.

The interface generates or dissipates energy (or

power). The power, provided through the real system,

has to be dissipated, because the virtual continua-

tion with software requires nearly negligible power. In

the opposite direction, the digital information provided

through the software has to generate the power neces-

sary to connect to the real system.

Application for a Discrete-Time Event System

Electropneumatic components installed at a real work-

bench are connected to a virtual workbench with

electropneumatic components stored in a library. Be-

cause the valves can only be open or closed, the

cylinders only on or off, one has only discrete events.

The energy interface, called the hyperbond, receives

digital information from the virtual workbench and gen-

erates air pressure and air ﬂow as well as voltage and

current for the solenoid valves and cylinders at the real

workbench (Fig.41.10). In the opposite direction the

energy interface senses air pressure and air ﬂow as well

as electrical signals to convert into digital signals. No

feedback control within the energy interface is neces-

sary unless it is desired.

The virtual and real workbench can be located ei-

ther at a local site or at remote sites connected via the

Internet. Also virtual workbenches may be distributed

at different sites connected via the Internet to the (only)

real workbench. The software of the virtual workbench

allowsaccess bymany users at the same time.Therefore

students or workers distributed at different locations can

solve tasks together at their virtual workbenches and

export it on the real workbench to test their common

solution in reality.

Part E 41.4

730 Part E Automation Management

Hyperbond interface

Virtual workbench

Real workbench

Fig. 41.10 Real and virtual pneumatic

workbench connected with an energy

interface (hyperbond)

The connected workbenches are located in com-

puter animated virtual environment (CAVE)-like con-

structions. CAVEs consist of scaffoldings with canvases

onto which the images of other workspaces with the

people working on them are beamed (Fig.41.11).

The example presents distributed workbenches for

discrete events (valves, cylinders, on/off). Yoo and

Burns [41.39] enhanced this application with a gener-

ally described energy interface forthe connection ofreal

(continuous-time dynamic) and virtual (discrete-time

dynamic) systems. Yoo [41.43] developed this interface

with low-cost components for examples with haptic

feedback.

41.4.2 e-Maintenance and e-Service

Among the main cost factors responsible for the per-

formance of a plant is the availability of machines

and equipment. Therefore maintenance takes an impor-

tant part in plant automation. Avoiding downtime, or

at least minimizing it, is the goal. Advanced mainte-

nance strategies and services are candidates for cost

savings. These integrate information processing and the

processing of physical objects. e-Maintenance is an

emerging concept, generally deﬁned as a maintenance

Fig. 41.11 Workspace with the real workbench and the vir-

tual one in front, and the remote collaborators projected

onto the left and right canvases

Part E 41.4

Quality of Service (QoS)ofAutomation 41.5 Conclusions 731

Service book

Task planning

& reporting

Maintenance

assistance

Report

• Activity

• Status

To do list

• Task ...

Prepare & execute

Preventive

maint. tasks

Adaptive

qualification

e-Training

maint. & repair

Condition

monitoring

Machine check

& status report

Service-

management

Spare part

shop

Machine

documentation

Fig. 41.12 Platform for web-based

maintenance service [41.5]

management strategy in which assets are monitored

(conditioned-based monitoring) and action is synchro-

nized with the business process through the use of web-

enabled and wirelessinfotronics technologies[41.4,44].

Despite the development of new maintenance strate-

gies (Fig.41.12) and the efforts of service providers

one should not underestimate the knowledge and expe-

riences of the operators of automation systems, and use

their expertise if possible. Here one has to ﬁnd a com-

promise between the cost of service from outside or

specialists from inside and the cost of qualiﬁed opera-

tors and their permanent training. To empower people

effectively depends on conﬁdence between manage-

ment and shop ﬂoor. It is not easy for the management,

but this problem is solvable if it reduces costs and ev-

erybody understands it. e-Maintenance strategies were

developed for the automotive industry. Many small en-

terprises still rely on preventive maintenance or even

on breakdown maintenance. The challenge is to make

e-Maintenance availablefor theseenterprises for afford-

able cost.

Tele-service was developed to support small enter-

prises to enhance their productivity at affordable cost.

The principal goal is to minimize trouble-shooting costs

by allowing service personnel the ﬂexibility to work

from a distance. The main advantage for the machine

operator lies in reducing machine downtime. e-Services

go beyond such conventionalconcepts. e-Service is con-

sidered to include support of customer service via infor-

mation and communication components and services.

e-Service makes the installation and start-up of ma-

chines and plants possible, as well as trouble-shooting,

the transfer of new software versions, the provision of

replacement parts, and ordering spare parts on time. In

the future, e-Service willalso ﬁnd applicationin process

support and customer consultation [41.5].

Two emerging areas have been described with re-

spect to their inﬂuence of cost savings. Some others that

should be mentioned are:

1. Semi-automated disassembly of electronic waste,

such as mobile phones, will gain more importance

in the near future: a ﬂexible, modular system for

the development of semi-automatized, intelligent

disassembly cells including stationary robots and

especially a low-cost, hierarchical control struc-

ture [41.45].

2. Harrison and Colombo [41.46] propose collabora-

tive automation in manufacturing. Their approach is

to deﬁne a suitable set of basic production functions

and then to combine these functions in different ar-

rangements. This approach creates more complex

production activities and saves costs of reconﬁgu-

ration of rigid automation in manufacturing.

41.5 Conclusions

Low-cost automation was considered under two as-

pects: cost-oriented automation as a strategy to reduce

the cost of ownership of an automation system, and af-

fordable automation focused on the needs of small and

medium-sized enterprises to enhance productivity and

thereby competitiveness.

Part E 41.5

732 Part E Automation Management

In the ﬁrst case the life cycle of a produc-

tion system was discussed, and design and main-

tenance/reconﬁguration were identiﬁed as the main

cost drivers. Recent developments of e-Maintenance as

emerging trends are promising for cost saving. Mainte-

nance was discussed holistically regarding the overall

performance of a production system. Life cycle engi-

neering with its different facets for cost savings was

described, and further developments were suggested.

Also human–human collaboration (including support

for human–machine collaboration) has been consid-

ered with respect to cost. Mixed-reality concepts with

application in learning environments to train for cost-

effective collaborative work over remote sites has also

been presented.

In the second case, examples of affordable au-

tomation for old and new developments of automatic

control such as smart devices were presented. Web

based e-Services to solve maintenance problems and

to avoid downtime of machines have recently been

provided by machine manufacturers. It is a chal-

lenge to the automatic control community to transfer

their developments in modern control design and

theory to make them applicable for affordable au-

tomation projects; for example, embedded control

systems (see Chap. 43), are promising cost-oriented

solutions.

Energy saving and its automatic control was brieﬂy

discussed for electrical energy generation in large-scale

power plants. Wastage of primary energy occurs as

unused heat. A possible energy-saving solution could

be decentralized generation of electricity so that heat

could be used more easilyfor heating buildings and pro-

cesses in plants. The main consumers of energy are the

residential and commercial building sectors. Building

automation systems are being developed to save energy.

The challenge is to make a possible sophisticated con-

trol understandable for the operators. To summarize,

energysaving is not only a matter of technologybutalso

depends on people’s habits.

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Part E 41

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