Nof S.Y. Springer Handbook of Automation

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

“This page left intentionally blank.”

Foreword

Automation Is at the Center of Human Progress

As I write this Foreword for the new Springer Hand-

book of Automation, the 2008 United States presidential

elections are still in fullswing. Not a dayseems to goby

without acandidate or newscaster opiningon the impact

of cheaper, offshore labor on the US economy. Similar

debates are taking place in other developed countries

around the globe.

Some argue that off-shoring jobs leads to higher

unemployment and should be prohibited. Indeed some

regions have passed legislation prohibiting their local

agencies from moving work to lower cost locations.

Proponents argue off-shoring leads to lower unem-

ployment. In their view freeing up of the labor force

from lower skilled jobs allows more people to enter

higher value jobs which are typically higher paying.

This boosts incomes and in turn overall domestic con-

sumption.

Then, what about automation? Is the displacement

or augmentation of human labor with an automated ma-

chine bad for our economies, too? If so, let’s ban it!

So, let’s imaginea world in which automation didn’t

exist....

To begin I wouldn’t be writing this Foreword on my

laptop computer since the highly sophisticated automa-

tion necessary to manufacture semiconductors wouldn’t

exist. That’s okay I’ll just use my old typewriter. Oops,

the numerical controlled machines required to manu-

facture the typewriter’s precision parts wouldn’t exist.

What about pencil and paper? Perhaps, but could I af-

ford them given that there would be no sensors and

controls needed to manufacture them in high volume?

IBM has been a leader and pioneer in many automa-

tion ﬁelds, both as a user and a provider of automation

solutions. Beyond productivity and cost-effectiveness,

automation also enables us to effectively monitor pro-

cess quality, reveal to us opportunities for improvement

and innovation, and assure product and service depend-

ability and service-availability. Such techniques and

numerous examples to advance with automation, as

users and providers, are included in this Springer Hand-

book of Automation.

The expanding complexity and magnitude of high-

priority society’s problems, global needs and competi-

tion forcefully challenge organizations and companies.

To succeed,they need tounderstand detailed knowledge

J. Bruce Harreld

Senior Vice President IBM

of many of the topics included in this

Springer Handbook of Automation.

Beyond an extensive reference re-

source providing the expert answers

and solutions, readers and learners

will be enriched from inspiration to

innovate and create powerful appli-

cations for speciﬁc needs and chal-

lenges.

The best example I know is

one I have witnessed ﬁrst hand at

IBM. Designing, developing, and

manufacturingstate-of-the artmicro-

processors have been a fundamental driver of our suc-

cess inlarge computer and storage systems. Thirty years

ago the manufacturing process for these microproces-

sors was fairly manual and not very capital intense.

Today we manufacture microprocessors in a new state-

of-the-art US$3 billion facility in East Fishkill, New

York. This fabrication site contains the world’s most ad-

vancedlogistics and material handling system including

real-time process control and fullyautomated workﬂow.

The result is a completely touchless process that in turn

allows us to produce the high quality, error free, and ex-

tremely fast microprocessors required for today’s high

end computing systems.

In addition to chapters devoted to a variety of indus-

try and service automation topics, this Springer Hand-

book of Automation includes useful, well-organized

information and examples on theory, tools, and their

integration for successful, measurable results.

Automation is often viewed as impacting only the

tangible world of physical products and facilities. For-

tunately, this is completely wrong! Automation has also

dramatically improved the way we develop software at

IBM. Many years ago writing software was much like

writing a report with each individual approaching the

task quite differently and manually writing each line of

code. Today, IBM’s process for developing software is

extremely automated with libraries of previously writ-

ten code accessible to all of our programmers. Thus,

once one person develops a program that performs

a particular function, it is quickly shared and reused

around the globe. This also allows us to pass a project

to and from one team to the next so we can speed up cy-

XII

cle times for our clients by working on their projects 24

hours a day. The physical process of writing the lines

of code has been replaced with pointing and clicking

at objects on a computer screen. The result has been

a dramatic reduction in mistakes with a concomitant

increase in productivity. But we expect and anticipate

even more from automation in support of our future,

and the knowledge and guidelines on how to do it are

described in this Springer Handbook of Automation.

The examples illustrated above highlight an im-

portant point. While we seldom touch automation, it

touches us everyday in almosteverything we do. Human

progress is driven by day-to-day improvements in how

we live. For more than one hundred years automation

has been at the center of this exciting and meaningful

journey. Since ancient history, humans have known how

to beneﬁt civilization with automation.

For engineers, scientists, managers and inventors,

automation provides an exciting and important oppor-

tunity to implement ingenious human intelligence in

automatic solutions for many needs, from simple appli-

cations, to difﬁcult and complex requirements. Increas-

ingly, multi-disciplinary cooperation in the study of

automation helps in this creative effort, as detailed well

in this Springer Handbook of Automation, including

automatic control and mechatronics, nano-automation

and collaborative, software-based automation concepts

and techniques, from current and proven capabilities to

emerging and forthcoming knowledge.

It is quite appropriate, therefore, that this original

Springer Handbook of Automation has been published

now. Its scope is vast and its detail deep. It covers the

history as well as the social implications of automation.

Then it dives into automation theory and techniques,

design and modeling, and organization and manage-

ment. Throughout the 94 chapters written by leading

world experts, there are speciﬁc guidelines and exam-

ples of the application of automation in almost every

facet of today’s society and industry. Given this rich

content I am conﬁdent that this Handbook will be useful

not only to students and faculty but practitioners, re-

searchers and managers across a wide range of ﬁelds

and professions.

J. Bruce Harreld

Armonk, January 2009

XIII

Foreword

Dawn of Industrial Intelligent Robots

This Handbook isa signiﬁcanteducational, professional

and research resource for anyone concerned about au-

tomation and robotics. It can serve well for global

enterprises and for education globally. The impacts of

automation in many ﬁelds have been and are essential

for increasing the intelligence of services and of in-

teraction with computers and with machines. Plenty of

illustrations and statistics about the economics and so-

phistication impacts of automation are included in this

Handbook.

Automation, in general, includes many computer

and communication based applications, computer-

integrated design, planning, management, decision

support, informational, educational, and organizational

resources, analytics and scientiﬁc applications, and

more. There are also many automation systems involv-

ing robots. Robots have emerged from science ﬁction

into industrial reality in the middle of the 20th Century,

and are now available worldwide asreliable, industrially

made, automated and programmable machines.

The ﬁeld of robotics application is now expand-

ing rapidly. As widely known, about 35% of industrial

robots in the world are operating in Japan. In the 1970s,

Japan started to introduce industrial robots, especially

automotive spot welding robots, thereby establishing

the industrial robot market. As the industries ﬂourished

and faced labor shortage, Japan introduced industrial

robots vigorously. Industrial robots have since earned

recognition as being able to perform repetitive jobs con-

tinuously, and produce quality products with reliability,

convincing the manufacturing industry that it is keenly

important to use them skillfully so as to achieve its

global impact and competitiveness.

In recent years, the manufacturing industry faces

severe cost competition, shorter lead-time, and skilled

worker shortage in the aging society with lower birth

rates. It is also required to manufacture many varieties

of products in varied quantity. Against this backdrop,

there is a growing interest in industrial intelligent robots

as a new automation solution to these requirements. In-

telligence here is not deﬁned as human intelligence or

a capacity to think, but as a capacity comparable to

Seiuemon Inaba

Chairman Fanuc Ltd.

that of a skilled worker, with which

a machine can be equipped.

Disadvantages of relatively sim-

ple, playback type robots without

intelligent abilities result in rela-

tively higher equipment costs for the

elaborate peripheral equipment re-

quired, such as parts feeders and part

positioning ﬁxtures. Additionally for

simpler robots, human workers must

daily pre-position work-pieces in

designated locations to operate the

robots. In contrast, intelligent robots

can address these requirements with their vision sensor,

serving as the eye, and with their force sensor, serving

as the hand providing sense of touch. These intelligent

robots are much more effective and more useful. For

instance, combined with machine tools as Robot Cells

they can efﬁciently load/unload work-pieces to/from

machine tools, thereby reducing machining costs sub-

stantially by enabling machine tools to operate long

hours without disruptions. These successful solutions

with industrial intelligent robots have established them

as a key automation component to improve global com-

petitiveness of the manufacturing industry. It signiﬁes

the dawn of the industrial intelligent robot.

Intelligent automation, including intelligent robots,

can now help, as described very well in this Springer

Handbook of Automation, not only with manufactur-

ing, supply and production companies, but increasingly

with security and emergency services; with healthcare

delivery and scientiﬁc exploration; with energy explo-

ration, production and delivery; and with a variety of

home and special needs human services. I am most

thankful for the efforts of all those who participated in

the development of this useful Springer Handbook of

Automation and contributed their expertise so that our

future with automation and robotics will continue to

bring prosperity.

Seiuemon Inaba

Oshino-mura, January 2009

“This page left intentionally blank.”

Foreword

Automation Is the Science of Integration

In our understanding of the word automation,we

used to think of manufacturing processes being run by

machines without the need for human control or inter-

vention. From the outset, the purpose of investing in

automation has been to increase productivity at mini-

mum cost and to assure uniform quality. Permanently

assessing and exploiting the potential for automation in

the manufacturing industries has, in fact, proved to be

a sustainable strategy for responding to competition in

the marketplace, thereby securing attractive jobs.

Automation equipment and related services con-

stitute a large and rapidly growing market. Supply

networks of component manufacturers and system in-

tegrators, allied with engineering skills for planning,

implementing and operating advanced production fa-

cilities, are regarded as cornerstones of competitive

manufacturing. Therefore, the emphasis of national and

international initiatives aimed at strengthening the man-

ufacturing base of economies is on holistic strategies for

research and technical development, education, socio-

economics and entrepreneurship.

Today, automation has expanded into almost every

area of daily life: from smart products for everyday

use, networked buildings, intelligent vehicles and lo-

gistics systems, service robots, to advanced healthcare

and medical systems. In simpliﬁed terms, automation

today can be considered as the combination of pro-

cesses, devices and supporting technologies, coupled

with advanced information andcommunication technol-

ogy (ICT), where ICT is now evolving into the most

important basic technology.

As a world-leading organization in the ﬁeld of

applied research, the Fraunhofer Society (Fraunhofer-

Gesellschaft) has been a pioneer in relation to nu-

merous technological innovations and novel system

solutions in the broad ﬁeld of automation. Its in-

stitutes have led the way in research, development

and implementation of industrial robots and computer-

integrated manufacturing systems, service robots for

professional and domestic applications, advanced ICT

systems for ofﬁce automation and e-Commerce as well

as automated residential and commercial buildings.

Moreover, our research and development activities in

advanced manufacturing and logistics as well as of-

ﬁce and home automation have been accompanied by

Hans-Jörg Bullinger

President

Fraunhofer Society

large-scale experiments and demon-

stration centers, the goal being to

integrate, assess and showcase inno-

vations in automation in real-world

settings and application scenarios.

On the basis of this experience,

we can state that, apart from research

in key technologies such as sen-

sors, actuators, process control and

user interfaces, automation is ﬁrst

and foremost the science of integra-

tion, mastering the process from the

speciﬁcation, design and implemen-

tation through to the operation of

complex systems that have to meet the highest standards

of functionality, safety, cost-effectiveness and usability.

Therefore, scientists and engineers need to be experts

in their respective disciplines while at the same time

having the necessary knowledge and skills to create and

operate large-scale systems.

The Springer Handbook of Automation is an ex-

cellent means of both educating students and also

providing professionals with a comprehensive yet com-

pact reference work for the ﬁeld of automation. The

Handbook covers the broad scope of relevant tech-

nologies, methods and tools and presents their use and

integration in a wide selection of application contexts:

from agricultural automation to surgical systems, trans-

portation systems and business process automation.

I wish to congratulate the editor, Prof. Shimon Y.

Nof, on succeeding in the difﬁcult task of covering

the multi-faceted ﬁeld of automation and of organiz-

ing the material into a coherent and logically structured

whole. The Handbook admirably reﬂects the connec-

tion betweentheory andpractice and represents a highly

worthwhile review of the vast accomplishments in the

ﬁeld. My compliments go to the many experts who have

shared their insights, experience and advice in the indi-

vidual chapters. Certainly, the Handbook will serve as

a valuable tool and guide for those seeking to improve

the capabilities of automation systems – for the beneﬁt

of humankind.

Hans-Jörg Bullinger

Munich, January 2009

“This page left intentionally blank.”

XVII

Preface

We love automation when it does what we need and

expect from it, like our most loyal partner: wash our

laundry, count and deliver money bills, supply electric-

ity where and when it is needed, search and display

movies, maps, and weather forecasts, assemble and

paint our cars, and more personally, image to diagnose

our health problems, or tooth pains, cook our food, and

photograph our journeys. Who would not love automa-

tion?

We hate automation and may even kick it when it

fails us, like a betraying conﬁdant: turn the key or push

a button and nothing happens the way we anticipate –

a car does not start, a TV does not display, our cell-

phone is misbehaving, the vending machine delivers the

wrong item, or refuses to return change; planes are late

due to mechanical problem and business transactions

are lost or ignored due to computer glitches. Eventu-

ally those problems are ﬁxed and we turn back to the

ﬁrst paragraph, loving it again.

We are amazed by automation and all those people

behind it. Automation thrills us when we learn about

its new abilities, better functions, more power, faster

computing, smaller size, and greater reliability and pre-

cision. And we are fascinated by automation’s marvels:

in entertainment, communication, scientiﬁc discover-

ies; how it is applied to explore space and conquer

difﬁcult maladies of society, from medical and pharma-

ceutical automation solutions, to energy supply, distant

education, smart transportation, and we are especially

enthralled when we are not really sure how it works,

butitworks.

It all starts when we, as young children, observe and

notice, perhaps we are bewildered, that a door automat-

ically opens when we approach it, or when we are ﬁrst

driven by a train or bus, or when we notice the auto-

matic sprinklers, or lighting, or home appliances: How

can it work on its own? Yes, there is so much magic

about automation.

This magic of automation is what inspired a large

group of us, colleagues and friends from around

the world, all connected by automation, to compile,

develop, organize and present this unique Springer

Handbook of Automation: Explain to our readers what

automation is, how it works, how it is designed and

built, where it is applied, and where and how it is going

to be improved and be created even better; what are the

scientiﬁc principles behind it, and what are emerging

trends and challenges being confronted. All of it con-

cisely yet comprehensively covered in the 94 chapters

which are included in front of you, the readers.

Flying over beautiful Fall colored forest surround-

ing Binghamton, New York in the 1970s on my way

to IBM’s symposium on the future of computing, I was

fascinated by the miracle of nature beneath the airplane:

Such immense diversity of leaves’ changing colors;

such magically smooth, wavy movement of the leaves

dancing with the wind, as if they are programmed

with automatic control to responsively transmit cer-

tain messages needed by some unseen listeners. And

the brilliance of the sunrays reﬂected in these beau-

tiful dancing leaves (there must be some purpose

to this automatically programmed beauty, I thought).

More than once, during reading the chapters that fol-

low, was I reminded of this unforgettable image of

multi-layered, interconnected, interoperable, collabora-

tive, responsive waves of leaves (and services): The

take-home lesson from that symposium was that main-

frame computers hit, about that time, a barrier – it

was stated that faster computing was impossible since

mainframes would not be able to cool off the heat

they generated (unless a miracle happened). As we

all know, with superb human ingenuity computing has

overcome that barrier and other barriers, and progress,

including fast personal computers, better software, and

wireless computer communication, resulted in major

performance and cost-effective improvements, such as

client-server workstations, wireless access and local

area networks (LAN), duo- and multi-core architec-

tures, web-based Internetworking, grids, and more has

been automated, and there is so much more yet to

come. Thus, more intelligent automatic control and

more responsive human–automation interfaces could be

invented and deployed for the beneﬁt of all.

Progress in distributed, networked, and collabora-

tive control theory, computing, communication, and

automation has enabled the emergence of e-Work,

e-Business, e-Medicine, e-Service, e-Commerce, and

many other signiﬁcant e-Activities based on automa-

tion. It is not that our ancestors did not recognize the

tremendous power and value of delegating effort to

XVIII

tools and machines, and furthermore, of synergy, team-

work, collaborative interactions and decision-making,

outsourcing and resource sharing, and in general, net-

working. But only when efﬁcient, reliable and scalable

automation reached a certain level of maturity could it

be designed into systems and infrastructures servicing

effective supply and delivery networks, social networks,

and multi-enterprise practices.

In their vision, enterprises expect to simplify their

automation utilities and minimize their burden and cost,

while increasing the value and usability of all deployed

functions and acquirable information by their timely

conversion into relevant knowledge, goods, and prac-

tices. Streamlined knowledge, services and products

would then be delivered through less effort, just when

necessary and only to those clients or decision makers

who truly need them. Whether we are in business and

commerce or in service for society, the real purpose of

automation is not merely better computing or better au-

tomation,butlet us increase our competitive agility and

service quality!

This Springer Handbook achieves this purpose well.

Throughout the 94 chapters, divided into ten main parts,

with 125 tables, numerous equations, 1005 ﬁgures, and

a vast number of references, with numerous guidelines,

algorithms, and protocols, models, theories, techniques

and practical principles and procedures, the 166 co-

authors present proven knowledge, original analysis,

best practices and authoritative expertise.

Plenty of case studies, creative examples and unique

illustrations, covering topics of automation from the ba-

sics and fundamentals to advanced techniques, cases

and theories will serve the readers and beneﬁt the

students and researchers, engineers and managers, in-

ventors, investors and developers.

Special Thanks

I wish to express my gratitude and thanks to our dis-

tinguished Advisory Board members, who are leading

international authorities, scholars, experts, and pioneers

of automation, and who have guided the develop-

ment of this Springer Handbook and shared with me

their wisdom and advice along the challenging edi-

torial process; to our distinguished authors and our

esteemed reviewers, who are also leading experts, re-

searchers, practitioners and pioneers of automation.

Sadly, my personal friends and colleagues Professor

Kazuo Tanie, Professor Heinz Erbe, and Professor Wal-

ter Shaufelberger, who took active part in helping

create this Springer Handbook, passed away before

they could see it published. They left huge voids in

our community and in my heart, but their legacy will

continue.

All the chapters were reviewed thoroughly and

anonymously by over 90 reviewers, and went through

several critical reviews and revision cycles (each chap-

ter was reviewed by at least ﬁve expert reviewers), to

assure the accuracy, relevance, and high quality of the

materials, which are presented in the Springer Hand-

book. The reviewers included:

Kemal Altinkemer, Purdue University

Panos J. Antsaklis, University of Notre Dame

Hillel Bar-Gera, Ben-Gurion University, Israel

Ruth Bars, Budapest University of Technology and

Economics, Hungary

Sigal Berman, Ben-Gurion University, Israel

Mark Bishop,Goldsmiths Universityof London,UK

Barrett Caldwell, Purdue University

Daniel Castro-Lacouture, Georgia Institute of Tech-

nology

Enrique Castro-Leon, Intel Corporation

Xin W. Chen, Purdue University

Gary J. Cheng, Purdue University

George Chiu, Purdue University

Meerant Chokshi, Purdue University

Jae Woo Chung, Purdue University

Jason Clark, Purdue University

Rosalee Clawson, Purdue University

Monica Cox, Purdue University

Jose Cruz, Ohio State University

Juan Manuel De Bedout, GE Power Conversion Sys-

tems

Menahem Domb, Amdocs, Israel

Vincent Duffy, Purdue University

Yael Edan, Ben-Gurion University, Israel

Aydan Erkmen, Middle East Technical University,

Turky

Florin Filip, Academia Romana and National Insti-

tute for R&D in Informatics, Romania

Gary Gear, Embry-Riddle University

Jackson He, Intel Corporation

William Helling, Indiana University

Steve Holland, GM R&D Manufacturing Systems

Research

Chin-Yin Huang, Tunghai University, Taiwan

Samir Iqbal, University of Texas at Arlington

Alberto Isidori, Universita Roma, Italy

Nick Ivanescu, University Politehnica of Bucharest,

Romania

Wootae Jeong, Korea Railroad Research Institute

Shawn Jordan, Purdue University

XIX

Stephen Kahne, Embry-Riddle University

Dimitris Kiritsis, EFPL, Switzerland

Hoo Sang Ko, Purdue University

Renata Konrad, Purdue University

Troy Kostek, Purdue University

Nicholas Kottenstette, University of Notre Dame

Diego Krapf, Colorado State University

Steve Landry, Purdue University

Marco Lara Gracia, University of Southern Indiana

Jean-Claude Latombe, Stanford University

Seokcheon Lee, Purdue University

Mark Lehto, Purdue University

Heejong Lim, LG Display, Korea

Bakhtiar B. Litkouhi, GM R&D Center

Yan Liu, Wright State University

Joachim Meyer, Ben Gurion University, Israel

Gaines E. Miles, Purdue University

Daiki Min, Purdue University

Jasmin Nof, University of Maryland

Myounggyu D. Noh, Chungnam National Univer-

sity, Korea

Nusa Nusawardhana, Cummins, Inc.

Tal Oron-Gilad, Ben Gurion University, Israel

Namkyu Park, Ohio University

Jimena Pascual, Universidad Catolica de Valparaiso,

Chile

Anatol Pashkevich, Inst. Recherce en Communica-

tion et Cybernetique, Nantes, France

Gordon Pennock, Purdue University

Carlos Eduardo Pereira, Federal University of Rio

Grande do Sul, Brazil

Guillermo Pinochet, Kimberly Clark Co., Chile

Arik Ragowsky, Wayne State University

Jackie Rees, Purdue University

Timothy I. Salsbury, Johnson Controls, Inc.

Gavriel Salvendy, Tsinghua University, China

Ivan G. Sears, GM Technical Center

Ramesh Sharda, Oklahoma State University

Mirosław J. Skibniewski, University of Maryland

Eugene Spafford, Purdue University

Jose M. Tanchoco, Purdue University

Mileta Tomovic, Purdue University

Jocelyn Troccaz, IMAG Institut d’Ingénierie de

l’Information de Santé, France

Jay Tu, North Carolina State University

Juan Diego Velásquez, Purdue University

Sandor M. Veres, University of Southampton, UK

Matthew Verleger, Purdue University

Francois Vernadat, Cour des Comptes Europeenne,

Luxembourg

Birgit Vogel-Heuser, University of Kassel, Germany

Edward Watson, Louisiana State University

James W. Wells, GM R&D Manufacturing Systems

Research

Ching-Yi Wu, Purdue University

Moshe Yerushalmy, MBE Simulations, Israel

Yuehwern Yih, Purdue University

Sang Won Yoon, Purdue University

Yih-Choung Yu, Lafayette College

Firas Zahr, Cleveland Clinic Foundation

I wish to express my gratitude and appreciation

also to my resourceful coauthors, colleagues and part-

ners from IFAC, IFPR, IFIP, IIE, NSF, TRB, RIA,

INFORMS, ACM, IEEE-ICRA, ASME, and PRISM

Center at Purdue and PGRN, the PRISM Global Re-

search Network, for all their support and cooperation

leading to the successful creationof thisSpringer Hand-

book.

Special thanks to my late parents, Dr. Jacob and

Yafa Berglas Nowomiast, whose brilliance, deep appre-

ciation to scholarship, and inspiration keep enriching

me; tomy wife Nava forher invaluablesupport and wise

advice; to Moriah, Jasmin, Jonathan, Haim, Daniel, An-

drew, Chin-Yin, Jose, Moshe, Ed, Ruth, Pornthep, Juan

Ernesto, Richard, Wootae, Agostino,Daniela, Tibor,Es-

ther, Pat, David, Yan, Gad, Guillermo, Cristian, Carlos,

Fay, Marco, Venkat, Masayuki, Hans, Laszlo, Georgi,

Arturo, Yael, Dov, Florin, Herve, Gerard, Gavriel, Lily,

Ted, Isaac, Dan, Veronica, Rolf, Yukio, Steve, Mark,

Colin, Namkyu, Wil, Aditya, Ken, Hannah, Anne, Fang,

Jim, Tom, Frederique, Alexandre, Coral, Tetsuo, and

Oren, and to Izzy Vardinon, for sharing with me their

thoughts, smiles, ideas and their automation exper-

tise. Deep thanks also to Juan Diego Velásquez, to

Springer-Verlag’s Tom Ditzinger, Werner Skolaut and

Heather King, and the le-tex team for their tremen-

dous help and vision in completing this ambitious

endeavor.

The signiﬁcant achievements of humans with au-

tomation, in improving our life quality, innovating and

solving seriousproblems, and enriching our knowledge;

inspiring people to enjoy automation and provoking us

to learn how to invent even better and greater automa-

tion solutions; the wonders and magic, opportunities

and challenges with emerging and future automation –

are all enormous. Indeed, automation is an essential and

wonderful part of human civilization.

Shimon Yeshayahu Nof Nowomiast

West Lafayette, Indiana

May 2009