Kelter P., Mosher M., Scott A. Chemistry. The Practical Science

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Positron emission tomography A medical

imaging technique that images metabolic

processes within the body. Also known as

a PET scan, 926–927

Potassium

electron conﬁguration of, 247

as essential nutrient, 903

in heart cells, 824, 853–854

ionization energy for, 282–283

isotopes of, 902, 903

nuclide notation for, 901–902

reactivity of, 279, 289

thermodynamic data for, A12

uses of, 270t

Potassium-40, 903, 904, 905

Potassium chloride, 129, 321

Potassium dichromate, 329

Potassium hydride, bond energies in,

360, 361t

Potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP),

772–773

Potassium hydroxide

heat of solution for, 466

pH of solution of, 744–745

Potassium tetrachloronickelate(II), 882–883

Potential The driving force (to perform a

reaction) that results from a difference in

electrical charge between two points, 824

Potential energy The energy things possess

as a result of their positions, such as their

position in a gravitational or

electromagnetic ﬁeld, 170–174

Pounds, 398

Pounds per square inch (psi) A unit of

pressure. 14.7 psi = 1 atm, 399

Pounds per square inch gauge (psig) A unit

of pressure expressing the pressure of a

gas in excess of the standard atmospheric

pressure. Also known as gauge pressure.

14.7 psig = 2 atm, 399

Power of 10, A2

Praseo complex, 880

Precipitate Any solid material that forms

within a solution; the action describing

the formation of a solid, 145

Precipitation reactions A reaction involving

the formation of a solid that isn’t soluble

in the reaction solvent, 144, 145–148

for extracting gold, 125–126

gravimetric analysis, 806–807

identifying, 147

metal recovery, 807

predicting, 146

stoichiometry of, 147–148

Precision The reproducibility of a

measurement, 29–31

Prednisone, 963f

Preﬁx, 17

Pressure The force per unit area exerted by

an object on another. The force exerted

per unit area by a gas within a closed

system, 398, 452

boiling point and, 455–456

conversion of units of, 400

as derived unit, 22t

deviations of real gases, 416–417

equilibrium and, 702–703, 705t

impact on solubility, 472–473

law of partial, 401–402

measures of gas, 397–401

osmotic, 479–480

in phase diagrams, 459–460

relationship with volume, 15–16,

405–408, 422

spontaneous processes and, 609–610

standard, 399–400

vapor, 452–455

–volume work, 176–177, 186

Pressure reaction quotient (Q

) The ratio

of the pressures of all of the gaseous

products raised to their respective

stoichiometric coefﬁcients, divided by

the pressures of all of the gaseous

reactants raised to their stoichiometric

coefﬁcients, 610

Pressure swing adsorption, 106

Primary alcohols Alcohols that have no

more than one carbon atom bonded to

the carbon atom that carries the

hydroxyl group, 517

Primary structure The sequence of amino

acids within a protein, 941

Principal quantum number The quantum

number, n, that describes the energy

level of the orbital; n can be any whole-

number value from 1 to inﬁnity,

234–235, 236, 243t

Principal shell The energy level that is

occupied by electrons with the same

value for the principal quantum number

(n), 235, 246

Probability

chemical behavior and, 580–585

entropy and, 587–588

Probability function, 233–234

Procaine, 747t

Products The materials that are produced in

a chemical reaction. The substances

located on the right-hand side of a

chemical equation, 47, 103

Proline, 940f

Propane, 497t

combustion of, 184–185, 189

reaction with steam, 110

Propanethiol, 513t

1,2,3-Propanetriol, 517, 518t

2-Propanol, 517, 518t, 519

Propanone. See Acetone

Propene, 511, 516t

1-Propene, 501f

Propylene glycol, 451

Propyne, 501f

Prosthetic groups, 948

Proteases, 593

Proteins A large polymer of amino acids.

May contain one or more polypeptides

and often involves complex and intricate

folds of the chain, 939

amino acid sequence of, 941

denaturation of, 946

diverse functions of, 953–956

enzymes, 947–952

folding of, 588, 589f, 590, 945–947

formation of, 940–945

primary structure of, 941

quaternary structure of, 946

secondary structure of, 945–946

tertiary structure of, 946

Protons One of the subatomic particles of

which atoms are composed, carrying an

electrical charge of +1 and found in the

nucleus, 53–54, 55

atomic number and, 56–58

Proust, Joseph Louis, 47–48

Pseudo-ﬁrst-order rate A modiﬁcation of

the second-order rate that enables one to

use ﬁrst-order kinetics, 640

Psychrophiles, 591

Psychrotrophs, 591

p-type semiconductor A semiconductor that

is electrically conductive if we apply a

small electric ﬁeld. The semiconductor

contains positive holes in the valence

band, 554

Putrescine, 523

Pyrene, 505f

Pyridine, 142

Pyrolysis, 420

Pyruvate, 585, 600–601, 602–603, 605–606

Q-test, A8–A9

Quadratic equation A mathematical

equation written in the form ax

+ bx +

c = 0, 699, A5

Quadratic formula The method used to

solve for x from the quadratic equation,

x =

−b ±

√

− 4ac

, 699, A5

Quality control The practice in industry of

ensuring that the product contains what

it is supposed to, and in the proper

amounts, 766

Quantitative chemistry, 86–116

Avogadro’s number, 91

chemical equations, 103–108

counting by weighing, 89–92

everyday controversies of, 116

ﬁnding formulas, 99–102

formula mass, 87–89

limiting reagent, 112–115

mass percent, 97–99

moles, 92–97

percentage yields, 115–116

stoichiometric ratios, 108–111

Quantum A single unit of matter or

energy, 210

Quantum chemistry The study of chemistry

on the atomic and molecular scale,

210–251

atomic orbitals, 234–241

Balmer’s analysis, 218–220

A78 Index/Glossary

Bohr’s model of atom, 220–224, 227–228

de Broglie equation, 228–229

electromagnetic radiation, 211–216

electron and nuclear spin, 242–243

electron conﬁgurations, 245–250

emission spectra, 216–220

Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 229–230

introduction to, 210

mathematical language of, 232–234

of multielectron atoms, 244–245

periodic table and, 250

scanning tunneling microscopes and, 229,

237–238

wave functions, 232–234

wave–particle duality, 225–231

“Quantum corral,” 209

Quantum mechanics The physical laws

governing energy and matter at the

atomic scale, 210

Quantum number A number used to arrive

at the solution of an acceptable wave

function that describes the properties of a

speciﬁc orbital, 218, 221, 222

angular momentum, 235

electron spin, 236

magnetic, 235

Pauli exclusion principle, 242

principal, 234–235

signiﬁcance of, 236–237, 243

s orbitals and, 234–237

Quantum tunneling, 237–238

Quaternary structure The way in which two

or more polypeptide chains have folded

to make a protein, 946

Questions, in scientiﬁc method, 12, 13t

Racemic mixture A 1:1 mixture of two

enantiomers, 961

Racemization The reaction that describes the

preparation of a racemic mixture from a

single enantiomer, 961

Rad A unit of energy absorbed by irradiated

material equal to 0.01 J/kg of exposed

material, 911t

Radial Along the radius in spherical polar

coordinates, 234

Radiation The particles and/or energy

emitted during radioactive decay, 54–55

Radical A molecule that contains an

unpaired nonbonding electron, 331, 358

Radioactive decay The process by which an

unstable nucleus becomes more stable

via the emission or absorption of

particles and energy, 54–55

alpha-particle emission, 905–906

beta-particle emission, 904–905

decay series, 907–909

electron capture, 907

gamma-ray emission, 906

half-life, 636–638, 912–915

integrated rate laws and, 635

of plutonium, 633

positron emission, 907, 918

predicting type of, 918, 919t

See also Nuclear chemistry

Radioactive nuclei, list of common, A19

Radioactivity The emission of radioactive

particles and/or energy, 53–55, 901

Radiocarbon dating, 51–52, 57, 635–636

Radio frequencies, 214

Radiopharmaceuticals Compounds

containing radioactive nuclides that are

used for imaging studies in nuclear

medicine, 924–927

Radio waves, 213, 214

Radium, 271t

Radon

alpha decay of, 905, 906–907

half-life of, 913f

properties of, 909

uses of, 274t

Ramsey, William, 224

Raoult, Francois-Marie, 474

Raoult’s law Describes the change in vapor

pressure of a solvent as solute is added to

a solution, 474, 479

Rate The “speed” of a reaction, recorded in

M/s, 621–622

Rate constant A constant that is

characteristic of a reaction at a given

temperature, relating to the rate of

disappearance of reactants, 628

activation energy and, 652

binding, 670

half-life and, 636–637

release, 671

Rate-determining step The slowest

elementary step in a reaction

sequence, 648

Rate laws An equation that indicates the

molecularity of a reaction as a function

of the rate of the reaction, 628

collision theory and, 629–630

elementary steps and, 649

half-life and, 636–638

integrated ﬁrst-order, 634–636

integrated rate laws, 631–640

integrated second-order, 639–640

integrated zero-order, 639

introduction to, 627–630

methods of determining, 641–646

pseudo-ﬁrst-order, 640

summary of, 646–647

Reactants The materials that combine in a

chemical reaction. The substances

located on the left-hand side of a

chemical equation, 47, 103

limiting reagent, 112–115

Reaction coordinate A measure that

describes the progress of the reaction, 651

Reaction mechanisms. See

Mechanisms

Reaction proﬁle A plot of the progress of a

reaction versus the energy of the

components, 174–175, 651–652

Reaction quotient (Q) The ratio of the

initial molar concentrations of all of the

products raised to the power of their

respective stoichiometric coefﬁcients,

divided by the initial molar

concentrations of all of the reactants

raised to the power of their

stoichiometric coefﬁcients.

equilibrium constant and, 688–689, 701,

705–706

free energy and, 611, 705

pressure, 610

standard potential and, 851–852, 854

Reaction rates, 621–627. See also Chemical

kinetics; Rate laws

Reactivity The ability of an element or

compound to participate in chemical

reactions. Reactivity is an imprecise but

useful term, particularly when we are

discussing relative reactivities under

deﬁned conditions, 289

of alkali metals, 270

ionization energies and, 282–283

periodicity of, 279, 289–292

of radicals, 358

Reactivity series A series of elements

ranked in order of reactivity. Also

known as an activity series, 291–292,

849–850

Redox reactions Chemical reactions in

which reduction and oxidation occur,

153, 824, 833–844

balancing, 836–841

in electrochemical cells, 826, 845–849

half-reaction potentials, 834–836,

A17–A19

half-reactions, 153, 826

identifying, 156–157

manipulating half-cell reactions,

841–844

oxidation states, 826–833

Reduced The species that has gained

electrons in a redox reaction, 152

Reducing agent A substance that causes the

reduction of another substance,

830–831, 849–850

Reduction The process of gaining electrons.

Such a substance is said to be reduced,

152, 827

Reduction reaction In a redox reaction,

the half-reaction that acquires

electrons, 826

Reference form The most stable form of the

element at standard conditions, 187,

188, 189

Reforming A process that changes a mixture

of predominantly straight-chain

hydrocarbons into a mixture containing

more aromatic and branched-chain

hydrocarbons, 508–509

Regulation The control of the function of a

gene or enzyme, 948–949

Regulatory proteins, 954

Release rate constant The rate constant

of the reaction in which oxygen is

released from the myoglobin-oxygen

reaction, 671

Index/Glossary A79

Rem A unit that measures the “equivalent

dose” of radiation; that is, it takes into

account the interaction of radiation with

human tissue. The word stands for

“roentgen equivalent in man.” The rem

is not an SI unit but is related to the SI

unit, the sievert, 911

Remsen, Ira, 833

Renewable sources of energy Energy

sources that can be rapidly replaced by

natural processes, 198–199

Replication The process by which DNA is

duplicated prior to cell division,

938–939

Residue The portion of an amino acid that

differs from other amino acids, 940

Resonance hybrid An equal or unequal

(based on experimental evidence)

combination of all of the resonance

structures for a molecule, 328

Resonance structure A model of a molecule

in which the positions of the electrons

have changed, but the positions of the

atoms have remained ﬁxed, 327–328,

341, 372

Rest mass The mass a particle has when it is

stationary, 231

11-cis-Retinal, 355, 356–357, 374, 381

trans-Retinal, 356–357

Reverse osmosis The process of purifying

water by passing it through a

semipermeable membrane. Dissolved

solutes are unable to pass through the

membrane.A puriﬁcation process wherein

pure solvent is forced (with pressure) to

ﬂow through a semipermeable membrane

away from a solution,10–11, 480–481

Reversible conditions The conditions that

occur when a process proceeds in a series

of inﬁnitesimally small steps, 593–594

Revlimid, 961

Rhodium, 872

Rhodopsin, 355, 356–357

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) A nucleotide

polymer that contains the information

from a single gene and either transfers

that information to the ribosomes

(mRNA) or recognizes and constructs

the protein product (tRNA), 941–945

compared with DNA, 941–942

messenger (mRNA), 942–943

transfer (tRNA), 943–944

Ribose, 941

Ribosomes Large molecular structures

within the cytoplasm of a cell that aid

the construction of a protein from

mRNA, tRNA, and the amino acid

building blocks, 944

Ritalin (methylphenidate hydrochloride), 95

Ritz-Paschen series, 218t

RNA. See Ribonucleic acid

Rods, 356

Roentgen A unit used to measure exposure to

radiation. One roentgen is equal to

2.58 × 10

−4

C/kg of dry air at STP, 911t

Root-mean-square (rms) speed The square

root of the sum of the squares of the

individual speeds of particles divided by

the number of those particles, 424–425

Rosenberg, Barnett, 876

Rosuvastatin, 545

Rowland, Sherwood, 429, 431

Rubidium, 216, 247, 270t

Ruby, 873, 884

lasers, 224t

Rust, color of, 884, 885

Rutherford, Ernest, 53–54

Rydberg, Johannes, 218

Rydberg formula, 218, 223

s orbital An orbital with quantum number

l = 0, 234–237, 238–239

Saccharide, 955f

Saccharine, 833

Sacriﬁcial anode A material that will

oxidize more easily than the one we seek

to protect from oxidation, 850

Salicylic acid, 14–15, 103–104

Salt bridge A device containing a strong

electrolyte that allows ions to pass from

beaker to beaker, 845–846

Salt River-Pima Maricopa Indian

Community, 193

Salts

in aqueous solution, 752–757

sparingly soluble, 802, 803t, 807–808

Satellites, orbiting speed of, 221

Saturated When considering a pure

substance—the surrounding atmosphere

contains the maximum possible amount

of vapor, expressed as the vapor pressure.

When considering solution—the

solution contains the maximum

concentration of dissolved solute,

452–453, 467

Saturated fats, 496

Saturated hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons that

do not contain double or triple bonds, 496

s-block elements, 261

Scandium, 264

Scanning electron microscopes (SEM), 229

Scanning tunneling microscopes (STM),

209, 229, 237–238, 377, 570

Schrödinger, Erwin, 232f, 375

Schrödinger equation The mathematical

expression that relates the wave function

to the energy in a quantum system,

232–233, 250, 375, 377

Scientiﬁc laws Concise descriptions of the

behavior of the natural world,13

Scientiﬁc method A reliable way to ﬁnd out

things about nature by making use of

appropriate combinations of these key

activities: making observations,

gathering data, proposing hypotheses,

performing experiments, interpreting the

results of those observations and

experiments, checking to ensure that the

results are repeatable, publishing the

results, establishing scientiﬁc laws, and

formulating theories, 12–16

Scientiﬁc notation, 31

Scrubbing The process of removing harmful

impurities from smokestack gases, 779

Seaborg, Glen, 925

Seawater

composition of, 465, 468, 470

desalination of, 10–11, 480–481

Second (s) The SI base unit of time,17t,18

Secondary alcohols Alcohols that have two

carbon atoms bonded to the carbon atom

that carries the hydroxyl group, 517, 519

Secondary structure The speciﬁc folds

within a polypeptide chain. Common

secondary structures include the alpha

helix and the beta pleated sheet, 945–946

Second ionization energy (I

) The energy

required to remove one electron from

each singly charged +1 ion of an

element in the gaseous state, 282

Second law of thermodynamics A

spontaneous process is accompanied by

an increase in the entropy of the

universe; S

universe

> 0, 588–590

Second-order rate law The rate of a reaction

is directly related either to the square of

the concentration of a single reactant or

to the product of the concentrations of

two reactants, 639–640, 644, 647t

Sedimentation The process of removing

dissolved organic matter, heavy metals,

and other impurities from water,

808, 809f

See-saw structure, 342

Segrè, Emilio, 925

Selenium

band gap of, 553t

in steel, 266

uses of, 273t

Semiconductors A metal that contains a

small band gap, 65, 269, 553–555

Semimetals A small number of elements

found at the boundary between metals

and nonmetals in the periodic table that

have characteristics midway between

those of the metals and those of the

nonmetals. Also known as metalloids,

65, 268–269

Semipermeable membrane A thin

membrane (typically made from a

polymer) with pores big enough to allow

solvent to pass through, but small

enough to restrict the ﬂow of dissolved

solute particles, 479

Sequester To tie up an ion or compound by

chelation and make it unavailable for

use, 813

Serine, 940f

Serotonin, 963

SI The International System (Systéme

International) of agreed-upon base

units, derived units, and preﬁxes used to

measure physical quantities, 17–21. See

also Measurement

A80 Index/Glossary

Sievert (Sv) A unit that measures the

“equivalent dose” of radiation; that is, it

takes into account the interaction of

radiation with human tissue. One

sievert equals 100 rem, 911

Sigma bond (σ bond) A covalent bond

resulting from end-on overlap of orbitals.

The sigma bond does not possess a nodal

plane along the axis of the bond,

369–371

Signiﬁcant ﬁgures Those speciﬁc numbers in

a measurement whose values we can

trust, 31–33

Silica glass, 559, 560f, 572–573

Silicon, 58

band gap of, 553–554

doping of, 554, 555

properties of, 65, 268–269

thermodynamic data for, A12

uses of, 266, 272

Silicon dioxide, 293, 463

Silver

coordination number for, 875

isotopes of, 903t

oxidation of, 586t

properties of, 64

reactivity of, 850

speciﬁc heat of, 181t

structure of, 544

thermodynamic data for, A12

Silver bromide

molar solubility of, 805

in photography, 382–383

Silver cell battery, 836, 847

Silver chloride

precipitation of, 807–808

saturated solution of, 677, 682

solubility of, 145

Silver–zinc battery, 848t

Simple cubic unit cell An arrangement of

particles within a crystalline solid

comprised of six particles occupying the

corners of a cubic box, 542, 546

Skou, Jens C., 545

Soda-lime glass, 560t

Sodalite, 310f

Sodium

electron conﬁguration of, 247

emission spectrum for, 220f

in heart cells, 824

ionization energy for, 282–283, 285

Lewis dot symbol for, 308

in nuclear reactors, 922

production of, 858

properties of, 270

reactivity of, 279, 289

sources and uses of, 265t, 270t

thermodynamic data for, A12

Sodium azide, 419–420

Sodium benzoate, 93

Sodium bicarbonate, 303, 307t

Sodium carbonate

as ionic compound, 307t

reaction with hydrochloric acid, 145

uses of, 718t, 719

Sodium chloride, 274

crystal structure of, 308, 541

dissolution in water, 127–128, 316,

465–466, 472

as electrolyte, 129

formation of, 308–309

formula for, 68

formula mass of, 88

heat of solution for, 466

as ionic compound, 70, 73, 304, 306–307,

321, 542

in IV solutions, 540

lattice enthalpy of, 313–314, 316

oxidation numbers for, 154

sources and uses of, 306–307

Sodium cyanide, 719

Sodium ﬂuoride, 307t

Sodium hydride, bond energies in, 360, 361t

Sodium hydroxide

applications for, 149

calculating molarity of, 132–133

dissolution in water, 129, 719

properties of, 132

reaction with hydrochloric acid, 143, 144,

150–151, 787–792, 831

reaction with phosphoric acid, 114–115

as strong base, 149

titration with acetic acid, 684–685,

792–795

uses of, 718t, 719

Sodium ion, 56, 261

electron conﬁguration of, 305

Sodium nitrate, in aqueous solution,

753–754

Sodium pertechnetate, 926

Soft drinks, 472–473, 772

Solar cells Fabricated systems that convert

the energy of sunlight into electricity.

Also known as photovoltaic systems or

PVs, 198, 199, 555

Solar spectrum, 216, 217f, 224

Solar thermal systems Fabricated systems

that convert the energy of sunlight into

heat, 198

Solids A phase of a substance characterized

by high density, rigid shape, and the

inability to ﬂow, 107, 443

properties of, 396, 397f, 443

types of, 541–542

Solid state lasers, 224

Solubility A property of a solute; the mass of

a solute that can dissolve in a given

volume (typically 100 mL) of

solvent, 467

in aqueous solution, 467–468

of ionic compounds, 146, 147

polarity and, 346

pressure effects on, 472–473

temperature effects on, 471–472

Solubility equilibria, 802–809

forming precipitates, 806–808

gravimetric analysis, 806–807

impact of side reactions, 802–804

molar solubility, 805

molecular processes impacting, 804–805

wastewater treatment, 808–809

See also Aqueous equilibria

Solubility product The mass-action

expression for the solubility reaction of a

sparingly soluble salt, 802

Solubility product constant (K

) The

constant that is part of the solubility

product mass-action expression.

Typically, K

values are much less than

1, 802, 803t, A15–A16

Soluble The ability of a substance to dissolve

within a solution, 145

Solute The minor component in a solution,

465

Solutes Molecules, ions, or atoms that are

dissolved in a solvent to form a solution,

126–127

Solutions A homogeneous mixture of solute

and solvent, 8–9, 126–127, 465

aqueous, 465–468

boiling-point elevation of, 475–477

colligative properties, 473–481

effective concentration of solutes in, 675

factors effecting solubility, 471–473

freezing-point depression for, 478

ideal, 474

isotonic, 480

osmosis of, 479–480

saturated, 467–468

solubility of substances in, 467–468

vapor pressure of, 474–475

Solution stoichiometry, 124–159

acid-base reactions, 128–129, 148–152

applications for, 140

concentration, 131–140, 468–471

dilution, 137–139

electrolytes, 129–131

measuring water content, 142

molarity, 131–135

molecular and ionic equations, 144–145

oxidation–reduction reactions,

152–157

parts per million, per billion, per trillion,

135–137

precipitation reactions, 145–148

protecting fresh water, 157–159

stoichiometric analysis, 140–143

titration, 140–143

water as versatile solvent, 126–131

Solvation The interaction of a solvent with

its dissolved solute, 466

Solvent A compound that typically makes up

the majority of a homogeneous mixture

of molecules, ions, or atoms; dissolves the

solute, 126

water as universal, 126–131, 465–468

Sørenson, Peter, 777

d hybrid orbitals, 368–369

Space shuttle

chemistry of, 6–7, 9–10, 167, 168, 172,

177, 188–189, 195–197

cleaning air in spacecraft, 113

fuel cell power, 826, 827f

insulation material, 557–559, 573

orbiting speed of, 221

Index/Glossary A81

Speciﬁc heat The amount of heat needed to

raise the temperature of one gram of a

substance by one degree Celsius (or one

kelvin) when the pressure is constant.

Also known as the substance’s speciﬁc

heat capacity, 181, 456

Speciﬁc heat capacity (c) The amount of

heat needed to raise the temperature of

one gram of a substance by one degree

Celsius (or one kelvin) when the pressure

is constant. (Also known as the

substance’s speciﬁc heat.), 181–185

Spectator ions Ions that do not participate

in a reaction, 144

Spectrochemical series The series of ligands

organized with respect to their effect on

the value of the crystal ﬁeld splitting

energy, 890–891

Spectroscopy The measurement of how

atoms and molecules interact with

electromagnetic radiation as a function

of the wavelength or frequency of the

radiation, 216

Sphingomyelin, 346, 957f

sp hybrid orbitals, 364–367

Spinach plastocyanin, 276f

Spin angular momentum quantum

number, 236

Spontaneous process A process that occurs

without continuous outside intervention,

585–587

concentration and, 611

entropy and, 588–590

free energy and, 601–606, 670

half-reaction potentials and, 834–836

pressure and, 609–610

temperature and, 591–595, 608–609

Sputtering The process of producing a thin

ﬁlm on a substrate by using high voltage

to move a material from a negative

terminal (the cathode) to a positive

terminal (the anode), 569

Square planar The geometry indicated by

four electron groups (lone pairs and/or

bonds) positioned symmetrically in a

plane around a central atom such that

the bond angles are 90°, 877, 880, 889

Square planar crystal ﬁeld splitting, 887

Stability constant. See Formation constant

Stainless steel, 850

Standard ambient temperature and

pressure (SATP) 1 bar and 298 K, 400

Standard atmosphere Exactly 1 atm, the

pressure that supports 760 mm of

mercury, 399, 400t

Standard carbon battery, 848t

Standard deviation, A7

Standard enthalpy of combustion (

H°)

The enthalpy change when one mole of a

substance in its standard state is

completely burned in oxygen gas. Also

known as the substance’s standard heat

of combustion, 189–191, 334

Standard enthalpy of formation (

H°)

The enthalpy change for the formation of

one mole of a substance in its standard

state from its elements in their reference

form. Also known as standard heat of

formation, 188–189, 195–197

Standard enthalpy of reaction (

rxn

H°)

Enthalpy change of a reaction in which

all of the reactants and products are

in their standard states, 187–190,

195–197

Standard heat of combustion, 189–190

Standard heat of formation, 188–189

Standard hydrogen electrode reaction

(SHE) A reference half-reaction of the

reduction of hydrogen ion to hydrogen

gas, against which to compare our

reduction, 835, 841

Standard molar entropy, 598–599

Standard molar free energy of formation

(

G°) The free energy of a compound

formed from its elements in their

standard states, 605

Standard potential (E°) The measure of the

potential of a reaction at standard

conditions, 834–836, A17–A19

equilibrium constant and, 855–857

Nernst equation and, 851–854

Standard pressure Deﬁned as 1 bar,

although chemists typically use 1 atm,

399–400

Standard solution A solution with a well-

deﬁned and known concentration of

solute, 140

Standard state The state of a chemical under

a set of standard conditions, usually

at 1 atmosphere of pressure and a

concentration of exactly 1 molar for any

substances in solution. Standard states

are often reported at 25°C, 187

Standard temperature For gases, deﬁned to

be 0°C, or 273 K, 400

Standard temperature and pressure (STP)

1 atm and 273 K, 400, 834

Standing wave The constructive interference

of two or more waves that results in the

presence of nodes in ﬁxed locations,

226, 233

Starch, 6, 7, 956

Starry Night (Van Gogh), 883, 884f

State The physical appearance of a chemical,

typically as a solid, liquid, or gas,10

State function A property of a system that

depends only on its present state, not on

the path by which it reached that state,

191–192

Stationary phase In chromatography, the

phase that does not move, 678

Steam cracking A form of cracking in which

heat, steam, and a catalyst are used, 508

Steam power, 197

Stearic acid, 109, 373

Steel

composition and uses of, 266, 267, 556

pipelines, 850

stainless, 850

in tin cans, 859

Stereoisomers Structural isomers that differ

in their three-dimensional arrangements

of atoms, rather than in the order in

which the atoms are bonded, 525, 527

Steroids Molecules composed of three

6-member carbon rings and one

5-member carbon ring fused together.

These compounds are part of the lipid

fraction of a cell and function as

structural materials and intercellular

communicators, 957–958, 963

Stibnite, 68

St. John–Bloch electronegativity

scale, 320

Stoichiometric ratios The mole ratios

relating how compounds react and

form products, 108–111

Stoichiometry The study and use of

quantitative relationships in chemical

processes, 108. See also Solution

stoichiometry

Stoney, G. Johnstone, 52

Straight-chain alkanes Molecules that

contain only hydrogen atoms and sp

hybridized carbon atoms arranged in

linear fashion, 497

Strassman, Fritz, 920

Strong acids An acid that fully dissociates in

water, releasing all of its acidic protons,

149, 724–730

concentrated vs. dilute, 729–730

pH of, 736–738

Strong bases A base that completely

dissociates in solution, 149

Strong electrolyte Any compound that

completely dissociates in solution,

129–131, 144

Strong nuclear force The force that holds

protons and neutrons together in atomic

nuclei, 169t

Strontium, 271t

Strontium ﬂuoride, 70

Structural isomers Molecules with the same

formula but different structures,

498–499, 525, 585

Structural proteins, 953

Styrene, 516t

Styrofoam, 564t

Subcritical mass A mass of a radioactive

isotope that is too small to sustain a

chain reaction, 923

Sublimation The process of a solid

undergoing a phase transition to a gas;

the opposite of deposition, 452

Substance A type of matter that has a ﬁxed

composition,6

Substance P, 963, 964f

Substitutional alloys An alloy made by

directly replacing solvent atoms with

solute atoms, 556

Substitution reactions Reactions in which

one or more atoms (often hydrogen

atoms) are replaced by other types of

atoms (often halogens or a hydroxyl

group), 510

A82 Index/Glossary

Substrate A reactant molecule that binds to

an enzyme, 948

Sucrose, 585, 657

composition of, 5

as covalent bond, 316

properties of, 6, 93–94, 97, 955–956

solubility of, 145

in solution, 126–127, 316

Sugars The simplest carbohydrates,

955–956

Sulfate-reducing bacteria, 146

Sulfur

electronegativity of, 289

gravimetric analysis of, 807

in ligands, 874

properties of, 261

sources and uses of, 268t, 273

speciﬁc heat of, 181t

thermodynamic data for, A12

Sulfur dioxide, 273

cleanup of, 682, 779

reaction with oxygen, 676, 677, 682–683,

686–687, 695–697

reaction with water, 757

uses of, 395t, 401

Sulfuric acid, 95, 273

as acid deposition, 757

in Breathalyzer, 329

Lewis dot structure for, 329

production of, 676–677, 748

reaction with sodium hydroxide, 151

strength of, 724, 728

uses of, 718t, 748

Sulfur ion, 261, 305

Sulfurous acid

formation of, 757

ionization of, 680, 698–700

Sulfur tetraﬂuoride, molecular geometry

of, 342

Sulfur trioxide, formation of, 677, 695–697

Sun, luminous intensity of, 20

Superacids Amazingly strong acids that can

be used to add hydrogen ions to organic

molecules that are otherwise impervious

to such reaction, 729

Superconductors A ceramic whose resistance

to the ﬂow of electrons drops to zero as

the temperature is reduced, 561–563

Supercritical ﬂuid This phase is seen only

when the pressure and temperature of

the substance are greater than the critical

pressure and critical temperature. It is

characterized with a density midway

between that of a liquid and a gas, a

viscosity similar to a gas, and the ability

to completely ﬁll the volume of a closed

container, 460

Supercritical mass A mass of a radioactive

isotope that not only supports a chain

reaction but causes the majority of the

nuclei to undergo unfettered radioactive

decay within a very short period of time,

releasing huge amounts of energy, 923

Superheavy elements, 918

Superoxide, 330–331

Surface tension A measure of the energy per

unit area on the surface of a liquid,

462–463

Surroundings Everything in contact with a

chemical system. Energy may ﬂow

between the surroundings and system.

Strictly speaking, the surroundings of a

chemical system comprise the entire

universe except the system, 168, 169–170

entropy changes in, 589–594

Symmetry The property associated with

orbitals that have similar size and shape,

375–377, 378

Synthesis gas, 106

System Any set of chemicals whose energy

change we are interested in, 168, 169–170

entropy changes in, 589–594

Table salt. See Sodium chloride

Table sugar. See Sucrose

Taq polymerase, 593

Taxol, 3, 71, 528–530

Technetium-99m, 906, 925–926

Technetium pyrophosphate, 926

Teﬂon, 3

Tellurium

electron conﬁguration of, 249

in steel, 266, 267

uses of, 273t

Temperature

absolute zero, 409

conversions, 19–20, 21

equilibrium and, 677, 703, 705t

impact on solubility, 471–472

as intensive property, 23t,24

kinetic energy and, 408, 409, 422, 423

osmotic pressure and, 479

in phase diagrams, 459–460

reaction rates and, 630, 652–653

relationship with volume, 408–411, 423

as SI base unit, 17t, 18–20

spontaneous processes and, 591–595,

608–609

standard, 400

vapor pressure and, 453

viscosity and, 462

Tenorite, 586

Tensile strength Resistance to breaking when

a substance is stretched, 563

Teratogens, 527

Termolecular (trimolecular) reaction A

reaction in which three molecules collide

in the rate-determining step of the

reaction, 648

Tertiary alcohols Alcohols that have three

carbon atoms bonded to the carbon

atom that carries the hydroxyl group,

517, 519

Tertiary structure The way in which

secondary structures fold together within

a polypeptide chain, 946

Testosterone, 963

Tetrachloroethylene, 461

Tetrachloromethane, 510

Tetracosane, 446

Tetracycline, 786, 961–962

Tetradentate Capable of forming four

coordinate covalent bonds to the same

metal center, 874

Tetradentate ligand A ligand that makes

four coordinate covalent bonds to a

metal ion, 810

Tetraethyl lead, 317–318, 321

Tetrahedral The geometry indicated by four

electron groups (lone pairs and/or

bonds) positioned symmetrically

around a central atom such that the

bond angles are 109°, 338f, 339t,

877, 889

Tetrahedral crystal ﬁeld splitting, 887

Tetrahydrofuran, 385t

Tetrasodium pyrophosphate, 719

Tetrose sugars, 955

Thalidomide, 526–527, 960–961

Thallium, 271t

Thallium-201, 914

Theobroma cacao,99

Theoretical yield The maximum amount of

any chemical, in grams, that could be

produced in a chemical reaction. This

value can be calculated from the

equation for the reaction, 115

Theory A trusted explanation of an

observation, based on a hypothesis that

has been tested in experiments,13

Thermal cracking A form of cracking that

uses heat alone, 508

Thermal pollution An artiﬁcial increase in

the temperature of water, 471

Thermite reaction, 196–197

Thermochemistry The study of energy

exchange in chemical processes, 168

Thermodynamic equilibrium constant, 706

Thermodynamics The study of the changes

in energy in a reaction, 168, 586

calculating entropy changes, 595–600

of coordination complexes, 892–893

coupled reactions, 611–612

data for selected compounds, A9–A12

electrochemistry and, 834–836, 841–844,

855–856

entropy, 587–588

equilibrium, 607–612

ﬁrst law of, 177–178, 589

free energy, 600–606

second law of, 588–590

spontaneous processes, 585–587,

591–595, 670

third law of, 598

See also Acid–base titrations

Titration curve A plot of the pH of the

solution versus the volume (or

concentration) of titrant, 790

Titration endpoint The volume and pH at

which the indicator has changed color

during a titration. The endpoint is not

always the same as the equivalence

point, 140, 801

Titration midpoint The pH of the

titration where the concentration of

weak acid or base is equal to the

concentration of its conjugate. At this

point, the pH is equal to the pK

of the

analyte, 794

Toluene, 334, 385t

in gasoline, 509

miscibility of, 466

properties of, 467

To r r A unit used to measure the pressure of

gases. 1 torr = 1 mm Hg, 399

Torricelli, Evangelista, 399

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer

(TOMS), 429f

Total synthesis The preparation of a

molecule from readily available starting

materials. Typically the total synthesis

involves many steps, 528

trans A molecule containing groups that are

ﬁxed on opposite sides of a bond that

cannot rotate, 503–504

trans isomer An isomer containing two

similar groups on opposite sides of the

compound, 880–881

Transcription The process by which mRNA

is synthesized from a gene, 941, 942

Transferases, 949

Transfer RNA (tRNA) A nucleic acid polymer

that recognizes the codon on mRNA and

adds the corresponding amino acid to the

growing protein, 943–944

Transition elements Metal elements from

Groups IB through VIIIB found in the

middle of the periodic table, 66, 275–276

electron conﬁgurations of, 250

valence electrons in, 269

Transition metal complexes, 873, 884–885,

888. See also Coordination complexes

Transition state The point along the reaction

coordinate where the reactants have

collided to form the activated

complex, 651

Transition state theory The theory that

describes how the energy of activation is

related to the rate of reaction, 651–653

Transition temperature The temperature of

a superconductor at which the resistance

to the ﬂow of electrons becomes

negligible, 562

Translation The process by which a protein is

synthesized from mRNA, 941, 943–944

Tribasic salt A salt that can accept three

acidic hydrogen atoms, 748

Trichloromethane, 510

Tridentate Capable of forming three

coordinate covalent bonds to the same

metal center, 874

Triﬂuoromethyl sulfur pentaﬂuoride, 431

Triglyceride (triacylglycerol) A molecule

made from three fatty acids and a

molecule of glycerol. Functions as

structural material in cell membranes

and as an energy storage molecule,

373, 957

Trigonal bipyramidal geometry, 338f,

339t, 342

Trigonal planar geometry, 338f, 339t

2,2,4-Trimethylpentane (isooctane), 70–71,

498f, 509

2,3,3-Trimethylpentane, 454

Trinitrotoluene (TNT), 88, 89f

Trios sugars, 955

Triple bond A covalent bond in which three

electron pairs (six electrons) are shared

between adjacent atoms, 326

Triple point The temperature and pressure

at which the gas, liquid, and solid phases

of a substance are in equilibrium, 460

Triple superphosphate, 98

Tr i pr ot i c Can produce 3 mol of H

when it

dissolves, 151

Triprotic acid An acid that contains three

acidic protons, 747

Tritium, 57, 58t, 244, 905

Tryptophan, 940f

Tungsten, 265t, 267

Tyndall, John, 559

Tyrosine, 940f

Ultraviolet radiation, 213f, 215, 884

Uncertainty A measure of the lack of

conﬁdence in a measured number,

28–29, A7–A9

Unimolecular reaction A reaction in which

one molecule alone is involved in the

rate-determining step of the

reaction, 648

Unit cells The repeating pattern that makes

up a crystalline solid, 542–543

X-ray crystallography of, 545–549

United States Customary System (USCS), 16

United States Geological Survey (USGS),

306–307

Universal indicator, 801

Universal solvent Water is often called the

universal solvent because of its ability to

dissolve so many chemicals to form

homogeneous mixtures, 126, 465

Universe The space comprising both the

system and the surroundings, 168

entropy of, 589–590

Unsaturated hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons

that contain CPC or C C bonds, 501

Uracil, 942

Uranium

atomic mass of, 60

binding energy of, 917

decay series for, 907–909

enrichment of, 426

isotopes of, 426, 907

structure of, 543f

thermodynamic data for, A12

Uranium-235

in atomic bomb, 920

decay series for, 908f

ﬁssion of, 923–924

in nuclear reactors, 922

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 443f

U.S. National Renewable Energy

Laboratory, 198

Valence band The collection of ﬁlled

molecular orbitals on a metal, 552–554

Valence bond theory The theory that all

covalent bonds in a molecule arise from

overlap of individual valence atomic

orbitals. A modiﬁcation of this theory

allows valence atomic orbitals to include

hybridized orbitals, 358–363, 386

application of, 360–362

deﬁnition of, 359

hybrid orbitals and, 363–374

problems with, 362, 363f, 372

Valence electrons The electrons in an atom,

ion, or molecule that are in the highest

principal energy shell. The electrons that

occupy the outer-most energy level of an

atom, which interact with those of other

atoms, 247, 269

in covalent bonding, 317

in Lewis dot symbols, 304–305

in octet rule, 306

A84 Index/Glossary

Valence shell electron-pair repulsion

model A model that proposes the three-

dimensional shapes of molecules on the

basis of the number of electron groups

attached to a central atom. Also known

as VSEPR, 335–343

bond angles and electron pairs in,

341–343

description of, 337

examples of, 337–341

limitations of, 357

Valine, 755f, 940f

Valium, 747t

Vanadium

electron conﬁguration of, 249

reduction of, 856–857

in steel, 267

Vanadium oxide, 704

van der Waals, Johannes Diderik,

416–417, 445

van der Waals equation The equation

that corrects the gas laws for gases

that deviate from ideal behavior,

416–417

van der Waals forces The intermolecular

forces of attraction that result in

associations of adjacent substances, 445

Vanilla, GC/MS analysis of, 62–63

van’t Hoff, Jacobus Henricus, 336, 476, 479

van’t Hoff factor A factor that modiﬁes the

colligative properties on the basis of

their ability to dissociate in solution,

476, 477t

Vaporization, heat of, 457–458

Vapor pressure The pressure of vapor above

a liquid in a closed system,

452–455, A17

Vapor pressure lowering, 474–475

Velocity

as derived unit, 22t

kinetic energy and, 170

Venable, Francis, 420

Vinyl chloride, 420, 516t

Violeo complex, 880

Viscosity A measure of resistance to ﬂow, 462

Visible spectrum, 213, 885f

Vitamins Small molecules that we need for

proper health. Normally, vitamins either

are not synthesized in our bodies or are

made in insufﬁcient amounts, 950–952

Vitamin A (retinol), 287–288, 950–951

Vitamin B1 (thiamine), 949f, 950t, 952

Vitamin B2 (riboﬂavin), 950t

Vitamin B6, 950t

Vitamin B12, 951t

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), 89, 723, 951t

in human body, 116, 952

molecular formula of, 140f

titration of, in solution, 140–141

water solubility of, 287–288

Vitamin D (calciferol), 950, 951t

Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), 951–952

Vitamin K, 951t

Vo l t The SI unit of potential, 834

Volta, Alessandro, 825, 826f

Voltage A measure of how strongly a species

pulls electrons toward itself. Also known

as electromotive force (emf), 834

Voltaic cell A cell that produces electricity

from a chemical reaction. Also known as

a galvanic cell, 825–826. See also

Electrochemical cells

Volume

conversion factors for, 26

as derived unit, 22

deviations of real gases, 416–417

as extensive property, 23t

law of combining, 50–51

in pressure–volume work, 176–177, 186

relationship with amount, 404–405, 423

relationship with pressure, 15–16,

405–408, 422

relationship with temperature,

408–411, 423

of unit cells, 547–548

using molarity to calculate, 134–135

Volumetric glassware, 138

VSEPR model A model that proposes the

three-dimensional shapes of molecules

on the basis of the number of electron

groups attached to a central atom. See

Valence shell electron-pair repulsion

model

Walker, John E., 545

Warner, John, 571

Water

autoprotolysis of, 733, 737, 738

boiling-point elevation of, 476t

boiling point of, 19, 445

different names for, 71

dipole–dipole forces in, 448

dipole moment in, 345, 444

dissolution of salt in, 465–466

electrolysis of, 397

electron density map of, 127f, 829f

enthalpy of formation of, 188

formation of, 6, 7f, 10, 50–51, 150–151

formula for, 70

freezing-point depression for, 478t

heating curve for, 456–458

hybrid orbitals in, 367

hydrogen bonds in, 448–450

impact of radiation on, 910–911

intermolecular forces in, 444–445

iron in, 870–871

meniscus of, 463–464

molecular shape of, 336–337, 340, 357,

368, 444

oxidation numbers for, 154, 827–829

phase changes of, 451–452

phase diagram for, 459–460, 461

pH scale and, 733–735

polar covalent bonds in, 321

properties of, 465, 766

protecting fresh water, 157–159

reaction with phosgene, 333

simultaneous detection of elements in,

219–220

speciﬁc heat of, 181t, 456, 457

stability as liquid, 444, 445, 449

standard state of, 187

structure of ice, 459, 461

surface tension of, 462–463

testing for small amounts of, 142

as universal solvent, 126–131, 465–468

vapor pressure of, 452–453, 474, A17

Water consumption, 441–443

Water treatment and standards

chlorine usage, 157–158

desalination process, 10–11, 480–481

with ﬂuoride ion, 137–139, 313

for hard water, 309–310, 767, 814

industrial wastewater, 145–146, 148,

158, 807

measuring contaminants, 135–136,

157–159

sedimentation, 808–809

use of chelates, 812t

Watson, James, 936–937

Wave energy, 172–174

Wave function The mathematical equation

describing a system, such as an electron,

atom, or molecule, that contains all

physical information that can be

obtained for the system by quantum

mechanics, 232–234

Wavelength A descriptor of electromagnetic

radiation. Deﬁned as the distance from

the top of one crest to the top of the next

crest of the electromagnetic wave,

211–215

Wave–particle duality The quantum

mechanical theorem that states that all

things have both wave and particle

natures simultaneously and that both

of these natures can be observed on the

atomic scale, 225–227

of electrons, 227–229

of protons, 230–231

Waves

classical mechanics view of, 226–227

quantization and, 227–229

standing, 226

Weak acids An acid that only partially

dissociates in water, 150, 724–730

equilibrium constants for, 725t

pH of, 738–742

Weak bases A base that partially dissociates

in solution, 150

Weak electrolyte Any substance that only

partially dissociates in solution, 129–131

We i g h t A measure of the gravitational force

exerted on a body, 17–18

counting by, 89–92

Weight percent A concentration unit based

on the mass of the solute per total mass

of solution, reported in percent, 470

Werner, Alfred, 880

Whole-number ratios, 100

Wilkinson’s catalyst, 872

Index/Glossary A85

Willow bark, 14

Willson, Thomas, 420

Wind power The use of the energy of the

wind to generate electricity, 172,

197, 199

Wor k (w) Force acting on an object over a

distance, 169, 178

pressure–volume, 176–177, 186

Xenon

compounds containing, 369

thermodynamic data for, A12

uses of, 274t, 275

Xenon tetraﬂuoride

hybrid orbitals in, 369

Lewis dot structure for, 329–330

molecular geometry of, 342

Xenophanes of Colophon, 46

X-ray crystallography, 377

of unit cells, 545–549

X-rays, 213f, 215–216, 561, 906, 910, 924

Xylene, 509

Zeolites A porous solid with a well-deﬁned

structure, typically made of aluminum

and silicon. Zeolites are capable of

binding to ions of speciﬁc radius based

on the relative size of its pores, 310, 572

Zero-order reactions A reaction in which

the rate is not related to the

concentrations of any species in the

reaction, 638–639, 644, 647t

Zinc

atomic mass of, 63

reaction with copper chloride, 851–852

reaction with hydrochloric acid, 402

structure of, 544

thermodynamic data for, A12

titration with EDTA, 814

Zinc–air battery, 848t

Zinc–ammonia complex, 809–810

Zinc–carbon battery, 848t

Zinc–mercury amalgam, 856

Zinc–mercury oxide battery, 848t

Zinc sulﬁde, 553t

Zirconium, 267

Zwitterions A molecular ion carrying both

an acid group, which generates a

negative ion, and a basic group, which

generates a positive ion, 755–756

A86 Index/Glossary

1.00794

6.941

22.989770

39.0983

85.4678

132.90545

(223)

9.012182

24.3050

40.078

87.62

137.327

(226)

44.955910

88.90585

La*

138.9055

Ac**

(227)

47.867

91.224

178.49

104

(261)

50.9415

92.90638

180.9479

105

(262)

51.9961

95.94

183.84

106

(266)

54.938049

(98)

186.207

107

(264)

55.845

101.07

190.23

108

(269)

58.933200

102.90550

192.217

109

(268)

58.6934

106.42

195.078

110

(281)

111

Uuu

(272)

112

Uub

(285)

114

Uuq

(289)

116

Uuh

(292)

63.546

107.8682

196.96655

65.409

112.411

200.59

10.811

26.981538

69.723

114.818

204.3833

12.0107

28.0855

72.64

118.710

207.2

14.0067

30.973761

74.92160

121.760

208.98038

15.9994

32.065

78.96

127.60

(209)

18.9984032

35.453

79.904

126.90447

(210)

4.002602

20.1797

39.948

83.798

131.293

(222)

140.116

232.0381

140.90765

231.03588

144.24

238.02891

(145)

(237)

150.36

(244)

151.964

(243)

157.25

(247)

158.92534

(247)

162.500

(251)

164.93032

(252)

167.259

100

(257)

168.93421

101

(258)

173.04

102

(259)

174.967

103

(262)

Period

IIA

IIIB

IVB

VIB

VIIB

*Lanthanides

**Actinides

IIB

IIIA

IVA

VIA

VIIA

VIIIA

VIIIB

810

Transition metals

Atomic number

Symbol

Atomic weight

Inner transition metals

Main-group elements Main-group elements

Periodic Table of the Elements