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b. Because both reactions involve the hydrolysis, the enzyme may

be able to catalyze the reaction; however, many enzymes have a very

speciﬁc active site and therefore would not be able to catalyze the

reaction; c. Lysine can be coded by the AAA or AAG codon on

mRNA and by the UUU or UUC anticodon on tRNA; d. 9.50 kg;

e. 8.16 kg; f. Nonedible ﬁbers could be converted into edible food.

A48 Answers to Practice Exercises and Selected Exercises

49. a.

Fructose

Glucose

HOH

Invertase

HOH

Sucrose

HOH

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Balik, L. Brady, J. J. Holbrook, Nat. Struct. Biol., 1996, 3, 11.

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Schneider, J. Biol. Chem., 1994, 269, 10879. 953: PDB ID: 1BPH; O.

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Index/Glossary

Page numbers followed by f refer to ﬁgures. Page numbers followed by t refer to tables.

Acid–base reactions The reaction between

an acid and a base. The products are

water and an ionic compound, 144,

148–152

conjugate acid–base pairs, 720–722, 753

stoichiometry of, 151–152

strong acids and bases, 148–149

weak acids and bases, 150

Acid–base titrations, 779, 787–801

applications for, 787

buffer regions in, 793–794

equivalence point of, 789–790

pH indicators for, 799–801

strong-acid–strong-base, 787–792

titration curves, 790

titration endpoint, 801

titration midpoint, 794

weak-acid–strong-base, 792–796

weak-base–strong-acid, 796–798

Acid deposition The precipitation of acidic

compounds from the atmosphere. This

includes wet deposition as rain and dry

deposition of particles, 757–758

Acid dissociation constant (K

) The

equilibrium constant for the dissociation

of an acid, 724–726, A13

Acidic Having a pH less than 7.0 in aqueous

solution at 24°C, 735

Acidic solutions

balancing redox reactions in, 836–840

common-ion effect in, 737–738

equilibrium constant for, 724–726

equilibrium hydrogen ion concentrations,

729–730

with mixture of monoprotic acids,

742–743

pH of strong, 736–738

pH of weak, 738–742

with polyprotic acids, 749–752

salts, 752–757

strong and weak acids, 724–730

Acid-neutralizing capacity The capacity of

a solution, such as lake water, to

neutralize acidity, 758

Acidophiles, 592t, 593

Acids A compound that produces hydrogen

ions (H

) when dissolved in water.

According to the Arrhenius model, a

species that produces hydrogen ions in

solution. Compare the deﬁnitions of

Brønsted–Lowry acid and Lewis acid,

128, 148

Arrhenius, 719–720

Brønsted–Lowry, 720–722

characteristics of, 723

conjugate, 720–722, 753

diprotic, 736

importance of, 718–719

Lewis, 722–723

list of common, 719t

molecular structure of, 728–729

monoprotic, 736, 742–743

polyprotic, 747–752

strength of, 130, 149–150, 723–730

superacids, 729

triprotic, 747

See also Acid–base entries; Aqueous

equilibria

Acrylonitrile, 516t, 567

Actinides The second set of inner transition

elements. The actinides include elements

90–103, 275–276

Activated complex The unstable collection

of atoms that can break up either to

form the products or to reform the

reactants, 651

Activation energy The energy that is required

to initiate a chemical reaction. The

minimum energy of collision that

reactants must have in order to

successfully create the activated complex,

174, 630, 651–654

Active site The location on an enzyme where

the reaction of the substrate is catalyzed,

335, 948

Activity The effective concentration of a

solute in solution, 675, 706

Activity series A series of elements ranked in

order of reactivity. Also known as a

reactivity series, 291–292, 849–850

Actual yield The experimental quantity,

in grams, of product obtained in a

reaction, 115

Addition polymer A polymer formed by the

process of addition polymerization,

515–516

Addition polymerization A type of

polymerization involving addition

reactions among the monomers involved,

515–516, 522

Addition reaction A type of reaction in

which atoms are added to a double or

triple bond, 514–515

Adenine, 935, 936, 937f, 942

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 607–608

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP),

607–608

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 545, 585,

595, 607–608, 611

Adhesion The interaction of a compound

with the surface of another compound,

such as the interaction of water with the

surface of a drinking glass, 463–464

Adrenaline (epinephrine), 87–88, 89

A53

Absolute zero The temperature obtained by

extrapolation of a plot of gas volume

versus temperature to the “zero volume”

point. The lowest temperature possible,

which is 0 K, or −273.15°C, 409

Absorb To be associated, through

intermolecular forces of attraction, by

being taken up or mixing into a

substance, 656

Absorption spectroscopy The measurement

of how atoms and molecules absorb

electromagnetic radiation as a function

of the wavelength or frequency of the

radiation, 216

Accuracy The closeness of a measurement to

the actual value, 29–31

Acetaldehyde. See Ethanal

Acetanilide, 623–624, 625–626

Acetic acid (ethanoic acid)

dehydration of, 104–105, 108–109

formation of, 103–104, 519–520

ionization of, 688–689, 691–693,

724–727

in solution with hydrochloric acid,

742–743

titration with sodium hydroxide,

684–685, 792–795

uses of, 520

as weak acid, 150, 724, 725

as weak electrolyte, 129, 130f

Acetic acid–acetate buffer system,

770–771, 778

Acetone (propanone)

boiling-point elevation of, 476t

formation of, 519

vapor pressure of, 454

Acetonitrile, 420, 513t

Acetylcellulose, 340

Acetylene (ethyne), 512t

combustion of, 358

formation of, 420, 421

pi bonds in, 370

uses of, 420, 501

Acetylsalicylic acid. See Aspirin

Achiral A term used to describe molecules

that have a superimposable mirror

image, 525

Acid anhydrides Binary compounds formed

between nonmetals and oxygen that

react with water to form acids, 757

Acid–base indicator A compound that

changes color on the basis of the pH of

the solution in which it is dissolved. The

color change is often a result of structural

changes due to protonation or

deprotonation of acidic groups within

the compound, 799–801

Adsorb To be associated, through

intermolecular forces of attraction, with

a surface, 656

Aerogel A silica glass whose structure is

mostly air; also known as ceramic foam,

572–573

Agriculture

future applications, 35

pesticides, 620–621

use of chelates in, 812t

Alachlor (Lasso), 623–624, 625–626

Alanine, 605–606, 755–756, 940f

Alcohols A chemical containing the hydroxyl

(OOH) group, 512t, 514

ethanol, 514, 516–517

list of selected, 518t

types of, 517

Aldehydes Compounds that carry a carbonyl

functional group (CPO) with at least

one H atom bonded to the carbonyl

carbon atom, 512t, 517–519, 872–873

Aliphatic compounds Compounds in which

all of the carbon atoms are sp

hybridized and contain only single

bonds, 495t, 496

Alkali, 148

Alkali metals The highly reactive metals

found in Group IA of the periodic table,

which form alkalis upon reaction with

water, 66, 270

commercial uses of, 270t

crystal lattice in, 545

electron conﬁgurations of, 250

ionization energies for, 282–283

properties of, 270, 279

Alkaline battery, 846, 848–849

Alkaline earth metals The metals found

in Group IIA of the periodic table,

66t, 270

commercial uses of, 271t

electron conﬁgurations of, 250

in ionic compounds, 68, 74

properties of, 270–271

Alkaliphiles, 592t, 593

Alkaloids Nitrogen-containing bases found

in vegetables and other plants, 746–747

Alkanes Saturated hydrocarbons, 496–500

branched-chain, 498–499

cyclic, 500, 502

naming of, 499–500

normal, 496–497

typical reactions of, 510–511

Alkenes Hydrocarbons containing at least

one CPC double bond, 500–501,

502, 512t

formation of, 510–511

geometric isomers, 502–504

naming of, 502

Alkoxy anion An anion that contains an

alkyl group attached to an oxygen anion,

such as CH

−

or CH

−

, 520

Alkyl group A hydrocarbon group, such as

OCH

or OC

, within the structure

of an organic compound, 504–506

Alkyl halide A functional group in which a

halogen atom is bonded to an alkyl

group, 511

Alkynes Hydrocarbons containing a CqC

bond, 501, 512t

formulas for, 101

naming of, 502

Allotropes Forms of an element that have

very different chemical and physical

properties, such as the allotropes O

and

, 71, 493

Alloys A homogeneous mixture of metals. A

solution of two or more metals, 266, 267,

556, 559t

Allred–Rochow electronegativity scale, 320

Alpha decay A type of radioactive decay

wherein an alpha particle is emitted

from the nucleus of a radioactive

nuclide. Common for elements whose

nuclei are larger than bismuth, alpha

decay is often accompanied by the release

of a gamma ray, 905–906

Alpha helix (α helix), 945

Alpha particles (α particles) Particles

emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive

element during the process of alpha

decay. They are helium nuclei

(2 protons, 2 neutrons), with a +2

charge, 54–55, 905–906, 919t

penetration capability of, 909–910

Aluminosilicate, 560t

Aluminum

density of, 23

gravimetric analysis of, 807

as Lewis acid, 722, 723f

metallic bonding of, 304

oxidation of, 168, 586t

production of, 826, 857–858

reactivity of, 291–292, 857

sources and uses of, 265t, 267, 271

speciﬁc heat of, 181t

in thermite reaction, 196–197

thermodynamic data for, A9

Aluminum chloride, lattice enthalpy of, 316

Aluminum hydride

hybrid orbitals in, 367

molecular geometry of, 368

Aluminum hydroxide, 147

Aluminum perchlorate, 168

Aluminum sulfate

in paper formation, 719, 723

in water treatment, 808

Amalgam A solution made from a metal

dissolved in mercury, 557, 856

American Academy of Orthopedic

Surgeons, 557

American Chemical Society, 2

Amide bond A bond formed by a

condensation reaction between an amino

group (ONH

) and a carboxylic acid

group (OCOOH), 523, 940

Amides, 513t

Amines A compound containing the ONH

functional group, 512t, 523, 940

Amino acids, 588

chirality of, 960

found in living cells, 940f

protein formation and, 940–945

water solubility of, 755–756

Amino functional group A functional group

containing an ––NH

attached to an sp

hybridized carbon atom, 523

Aminopolycarboxylic acid chelating

agents, 811t

Ammonia

in aqueous solution, 722

as base, 150, 722, 723, 743–744

complex with zinc, 809–810

hybrid orbitals in, 367

hydrogen bonds in, 450f

mass-action expression for, 673–674

molecular geometry of, 340, 341, 368

nicotine and, 743, 746

oxidation states for, 831

pH of precipitation and, 758

pH of solution of, 745

production of, 156, 597, 625, 702–703,

704, 722

titration with hydrochloric acid,

796–798

uses of, 340, 395t, 718t, 719t, 743

Ammonia–ammonium ion buffer system,

767–770, 775–777, 782–783

Ammonium chloride, reaction with barium

hydroxide, 597

Ammonium cyanide, 755

Ammonium nitrate, 97–98, 175

Ammonium phosphate, 47, 75

Ammonium sulfate, 97–98

Amorphous solid A solid whose atoms,

ions, or molecules occupy fairly rigid

and ﬁxed locations but that lacks a high

degree of order over the long term, 541

Amount of substance, as SI base unit,

17t,20

Ampere (A) The SI base unit of electric

current,17t,20

Amphiprotic Having the ability to act as

either an acid or a base in different

circumstances, 733, 755

Amplitude The distance between the highest

point and the midpoint (zero) of a

wave, 212

m-Amsacrine, 962

Anabolism The metabolic process of

constructing molecules from smaller

molecules using high-energy molecules

that have been made by catabolism, 958

Analgesic drugs, 14–15, 335

Analyte A solute whose concentration is to be

measured by a laboratory test, 766

Anastas, Paul, 571

Angstrom, Anders, 217

Angstrom A unit of distance equal to

−10

m. It is symbolized by Å, 211

Angular As a function of the angles that

describe the orientation of the radius in

spherical polar coordinates, 234

A54 Index/Glossary

Angular momentum quantum number

The quantum number, l, that describes

the shape of the orbital; l can be any

whole-number value from zero to n – 1,

235, 243t

Anhydrides, in aqueous solution, 757–758

Anions Ions with a negative charge, 56,

286, 289

acidity of salt and, 756–757

alkoxy, 520

carboxylate, 520

electron conﬁgurations of, 305

Lewis dot symbols for, 305

size of, 311

Anode The electrode at which oxidation

takes place, 826, 845

sacriﬁcial, 850

Antacids, 784–786

Anthocyanins A naturally occurring class of

compounds responsible for many of the

colors of plants. These compounds often

act as acid–base indicators, 801

Anthracene, 505f

Antibiotics Substances that kill, harm, or

retard the growth of microorganisms,

961–962

Antibodies Large biological molecules that

are produced during an immune

response, travel to the site of infection,

bind to foreign material, and signal

the destruction of the foreign

material, 954

Antibonding orbitals An orbital that

indicates a lack of electron density

between adjacent nuclei (no bond exists

when the orbital is occupied). The

antibonding orbital arises from the

subtraction of two overlapping atomic

orbitals, 375, 376, 378

in metals, 551–552

Anticodon The three-nucleic-acid sequence

on a tRNA polymer that recognizes and

binds to the codon on an mRNA

polymer, 943

Antifreeze, 462, 477, 478

Antilogarithm, A4

Antimatter Particles that have the same mass

as, but charges opposite to, corresponding

matter. Antimatter particles such as the

positron and antineutrino are similar to

the electron and neutrino, respectively,

but have opposite characteristics, 905

Antimony, 272t,A9

Antineutrino A subatomic particle produced

in beta-minus decay that has no charge,

has essentially no mass, and interacts

only rarely with matter, 904–905,

909–910

Antlerite, 586

Aqua regia, 844

Aquatic systems

acid concentrations and, 729–730, 733

calcium carbonate dissociation, 802–804

impact of mercury on, 876–877

Aqueous Water-based; also implies that a

dissolved substance has a sphere of

hydration, 126

Aqueous equilibria

acid–base titrations, 787–801

acid strength and, 724–730

buffers and, 767–786

common-ion effect in, 737–738, 768–771

complex-ion equilibria, 809–815

Henderson–Hasselbalch equation and,

777–779

pH of acidic solutions and, 738–743

pH of basic solutions and, 744–745

pH of polyprotic acids and, 749–752

in salt solutions, 752–756

solubility equilibria, 802–809

See also Equilibrium; Solubility equilibria

Aqueous solutions A homogeneous mixture

of a solute dissolved in the solvent water,

107, 465

anhydrides in, 757–758

dissolution process, 465–466

hydration, 466, 479

pH of, 735–746

solubility of substances in, 467–468

See also Solution stoichiometry; Solutions

Aramid, 567

Arginine, 940f

Argon, 903

lasers, 224t

thermodynamic data for, A9

uses of, 274t, 275, 312, 401

ArK excimer lasers, 224t

Arnolﬁni Wedding (van Eyck), 868

Aromatic hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons that

contain one or more aromatic rings,

495t, 504

Arrhenius, Svante, 52, 652, 719

Arrhenius equation, 652

Arsenic

in drinking water, 135, 471

thermodynamic data for, A9

uses of, 272t

Arthrobacter psychrolactophilus, 592

Ascorbic acid. See Vitamin C

Asparagine, 940f

Aspartate, 940f

Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), 87, 719

buffers in, 784, 786f

chemical formula for, 89, 90f, 303

as covalent bond, 304

formula mass of, 88, 90–91

Lewis dot structure for, 328

molar mass of, 92

properties of, 303, 723–724

synthesis of, 15, 103–104, 322

Astatine, 274t

Atmosphere, 292f, 394

changes in ozone concentration, 427–432

composition of, 71, 293–294, 394, 395

partial pressures in, 402–403

Atmosphere (atm) A unit used to measure

pressure. 1 atm = 760 mm Hg, 399, 400t

Atomic bomb, 920

Atomic force microscopy (AFM), 570

Atomic mass units (amu) The arbitrary

unit of mass for elements based on the

isotope carbon-12. One atom of

carbon-12 is deﬁned to have a mass of

exactly 12.0000 amu, 60–61, 87

Atomic number (Z) The number of protons

in the nucleus of an atom, 56, 58

in nuclear equations, 904

nuclear stability and, 917–918

periodicity of, 264

Atomic orbitals. See Orbitals

Atomic radius Half the distance between the

nuclei in a molecule consisting of

identical atoms. Also known as the

covalent radius, 280–281, 311

Atoms The smallest identifying unit of an

element,5

atomic number of, 56

Bohr’s model of, 220–224

Dalton’s atomic theory, 49–51

determining mass of, 59–63, 87–88

isotopes, 57–58

mass number of, 57

origins of word, 47

periodic table, 64–66

radioactivity and, 53–55

size of, 21, 280–281, 311

structure of, 51–57

total number in universe, A1, A2

ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate

Atrazine, 620–621, 636–637, 645, 654

Aufbau principle As protons are added to

the nucleus increasing the atomic

number of the atom, electrons are added

successively to the next highest energy

orbital. The method of ﬁlling hydrogen

atomic orbitals to get the ground-state

electron conﬁguration of a multielectron

atom by adding the electrons one at a

time until all are accommodated; from

the German phrase for “building up,”

245, 250, 261, 279

Automobiles

air bags, 419–420

catalytic converters, 277, 317, 430,

638–639, 656

gasoline, 317–318, 508–509

and increase of surface ozone, 430

solar-powered, 555

Autoprotolysis Proton transfer between

molecules of the same chemical species,

as in the autoprotolysis of water, 733,

737, 738

Average rate The rate of a reaction measured

over a long period of time, 622–627

Average speed The sum of the molecular

speeds of each molecule divided by the

number of molecules, 424

Avogadro, Amadeo, 91, 404

Avogadro’s law Equal amounts of gases

occupy the same volume at constant

temperature and pressure, 404–405,

413t, 423

Index/Glossary A55

Avogadro’s number (N

) The number of

particles (6.022 × 10

) of a substance

in 1 mol of that substance. By deﬁnition,

Avogadro’s number is equal to the

number of carbon-12 atoms in exactly

12.0000 g of carbon-12, 91, 92

Axial position The position of a group when

it is aligned along the z axis of a

molecule, 340

Baekeland, Leo, 563

Bakelite, 563

Balanced Appropriate coefﬁcients have been

added such that the number of atoms of

each element are the same in both

reactants and products, 103

Balances, 47, 668, 806

Balmer, Johann J., 217, 218

Balmer series, 218–219, 223

Band gap A small energy gap that exists

between the valence band and the

conduction band, 553–554

Band theory A metal is a lattice of metal

cations spaced throughout a sea of

delocalized electrons, 551–553

Bar A unit used to measure pressure.

1.01325 bar = 1 atmosphere, 399

Barium, 271t,A9

Barium hydroxide

reaction with ammonium chloride, 597

reaction with magnesium sulfate, 147

Barometer, 399

Bartlett, Neil, 329

Base hydrolysis The process in which a base

reacts with water to produce its

conjugate acid and hydroxide ion, 753

Base pair A pair of nucleic acids that are

intermolecularly bound to each other

through noncovalent forces of attraction,

for example, the combination of A and T

or of G and C in a DNA duplex, 936,

937f, 942

Bases According to the Arrhenius model, a

species that produces hydroxide ions in

solution. Compare the deﬁnitions of

Brønsted–Lowry base and Lewis base,

129, 148

Arrhenius, 719–720

Brønsted–Lowry, 720–722

characteristics of, 723

conjugate, 720–722, 753

equilibrium constants for, 725, A14

importance of, 718–719

Lewis, 722–723, 870

list of common, 719t

strength of, 130, 149–150