Kelter P., Mosher M., Scott A. Chemistry. The Practical Science
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
x
Paul Kelter is Chair of the Department of Teaching and Learning at Northern
Illinois University. Prior to that, he was most recently at the University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign, where he was Professor of Chemistry and University Dis-
tinguished Teacher/Scholar. Dr. Kelter received his B.S. from the City College of
the City University of New York in 1976 and was awarded a Ph.D. in Analytical
Chemistry in 1980 from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UN-L). Before
coming to Northern Illinois, he worked as an Educational Specialist for the Na-
tional Aeronautics and Space Administration, was on the faculty of the University
of Nebraska-Lincoln, and held the M. F. Rourk Chair in Chemistry and Chemical
Education at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, in addition to his
time at Illinois. Professor Kelter has won many university and state teaching
awards, including the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh Distinguished Teaching
Award, the Wisconsin Society of Science Teachers Regional Science Education
Award,the Inaugural and Second University of Nebraska Student Body Outstand-
ing Teacher of the Year Awards, and is a five-time recipient of the Certificate of
Recognition to Students at UN-L. At Illinois, his student evaluations twice earned
him recognition on the “Incomplete List of Teachers Ranked as Excellent by Their
Students,” which is given to teachers in the top ten percent of student rankings
university-wide. He was the eighteenth faculty member inducted into the Univer-
sity of Nebraska-Lincoln Academy of Distinguished Teachers, and was the
fifteenth faculty member honored with the University of Nebraska Outstanding
Teaching and Instructional Creativity Award, the highest career-teaching award
given by that university system.
Michael Mosher received his B.S. in Chemistry from the University of Idaho in
1988, his M.S. in Organic Chemistry from Dartmouth College in 1990, and his
Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Texas Tech University in 1993. After teaching
for two years at the University of Idaho as a Visiting Assistant Professor, he joined
the faculty at the University of Nebraska at Kearney (UNK) in 1995. He currently
holds the position of Professor and Chair of the Department of Chemistry at
UNK. He is an active member of the American Chemical Society, the Interna-
tional Society for Heterocyclic Chemistry (ISHC), and serves on the executive
board of directors for the International Center for First-Year Undergraduate
Chemistry Education (ICUC). He has received numerous awards for teaching
and research with undergraduate students, including the UNK Creative Teaching
Award in 1999, 2001, and again in 2003. He is one of only three faculty members
to have received two awards by the Pratt-Heins Foundation: the Faculty Award in
Scholarship and Research in 2001 and the Faculty Award in Teaching in 2003. He
is the author of numerous research publications and textbook ancillaries.
Andrew Scott is a science writer and lecturer in chemistry at Perth College of the
UHI Millennium Institute in Scotland. He has a B.Sc. (Hons) in biochemistry
from Edinburgh University (1977) and a Ph.D. in organic chemistry from
Cambridge University (1981). He is the author of several textbooks and general
science books, which have been translated into nine languages. Dr. Scott has also
worked extensively as a science journalist and as a consultant on European educa-
tion programs. He lives in the village of Dunning, in Perthshire, Scotland, with his
wife Margaret. Their two children are currently at university in Edinburgh.
About the Authors
Why Is Chemistry of Practical Importance to Our Lives? xxii
Features of the Textbook Program xxv
Chapter 1
The World of Chemistry 1
Chemical Encounters: Chemists and Their Jobs 2
1.1 What Do Chemists Do? 3
1.2 The Chemist’s Shorthand 4
Chemical Encounters: Desalination 10
1.3 The Scientific Method 12
How do we know? How to control pain: An example of the scientific method in action 14
1.4 Units and Measurement 16
1.5 Conversions and Dimensional Analysis 25
1.6 Uncertainty, Precision, Accuracy, and Significant Figures 28
1.7 The Chemical Challenges of the Future 34
The Bottom Line 37
Key Words 37
Focus Your Learning 39
Chapter 2
Atoms: A Quest for Understanding 45
Chemical Encounters: How Old Is Life? 46
2.1 Early Attempts to Explain Matter 46
2.2 Dalton’s Atomic Theory and Beyond 49
2.3 The Structure of the Atom 51
Chemical Encounters: The Dover Boat and Radiocarbon Dating 51
2.4 Atoms and Isotopes 56
2.5 Atomic Mass 59
NanoWorld / MacroWorld Big effects of the very
small: Flavor analysis 62
2.6 The Periodic Table 64
2.7 Ionic Compounds 67
2.8 Molecules 70
2.9 Naming Compounds 71
2.10 Naming Acids 76
The Bottom Line 77
Key Words 77
Focus Your Learning 79
Chapter 3
Introducing Quantitative Chemistry 86
3.1 Formula Masses 87
Chemical Encounters: Adrenaline in the Body 87
3.2 Counting by Weighing 89
xi
Contents
xii Contents
3.3 Working with Moles 92
Chemical Encounters: Cholesterol in the Blood 95
3.4 Percentages by Mass 97
Chemical Encounters: Nitrogen in Fertilizers 97
3.5 Finding the Formula 99
Chemical Encounters: A Focus on Chocolate 99
3.6 Chemical Equations 103
Chemical Encounters: Preparation of Aspirin 103
3.7 Working with Equations 108
Chemical Encounters: Cleaning the Air on Manned Spacecraft 113
Issues and Controversies Everyday controversies of quantitative chemistry 116
The Bottom Line 117
Key Words 117
Focus Your Learning 118
Chapter 4
Solution Stoichiometry and Types of Reactions 124
Chemical Encounters: Gold Mining and Cyanide Leaching 125
4.1 Water—A Most Versatile Solvent 126
Chemical Encounters: Sports Drinks and Electrolyte Balance 129
4.2 The Concentration of Solutions 131
Chemical Encounters: Maximum Levels of Chemicals in Drinking Water 135
4.3 Stoichiometric Analysis of Solutions 140
How do we know? How to test for small amounts of water 142
4.4 Types of Chemical Reactions 144
4.5 Precipitation Reactions 145
Chemical Encounters: Focus on Lead Sulfide 145
4.6 Acid–Base Reactions 148
4.7 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 152
4.8 Fresh Water—Issues of Quantitative
Chemistry
157
Chemical Encounters: Revisiting the
Maximum Levels of Chemicals in
Drinking Water
157
The Bottom Line 159
Key Words 160
Focus Your Learning 161
Chapter 5
Energy 167
Chemical Encounters: Setting the Stage with the Space Shuttle 168
5.1 The Concept of Energy 169
NanoWorld / MacroWorld Big effects of the very small:
Electrons capturing energy in photosynthesis 173
5.2 Keeping Track of Energy 178
Chemical Encounters: Energy in Foods 179
5.3 Specific Heat Capacity and Heat Capacity 181
Contents xiii
5.4 Enthalpy 186
5.5 Hess’s Law 191
Chemical Encounters: Focus on Methane 193
5.6 Energy Choices 197
Chemical Encounters: Energy Choices 197
The Bottom Line 200
Key Words 200
Focus Your Learning 202
Chapter 6
Quantum Chemistry: The Strange World of Atoms 209
6.1 Introducing Quantum Chemistry 210
6.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 211
Issues and Controversies Putting the Squeeze on Radio Frequencies 214
6.3 Atomic Emission and Absorption Spectroscopy, Chemical Analysis
and the Quantum Number
216
Chemical Encounters: Simultaneous Determination of Elements in Water 219
6.4 The Bohr Model of Atomic Structure 220
Chemical Encounters: The Nature and Applications of Lasers 224
6.5 Wave–Particle Duality 225
6.6 Why Treating Things as “Waves” Allows Us to Quantize Their Behavior 227
6.7 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 229
6.8 More About the Photon—the de Broglie and Heisenberg Discussions 230
6.9 The Mathematical Language of Quantum Chemistry 232
6.10 Atomic Orbitals 234
Chemical Encounters: The Scanning Tunneling Microscope 237
6.11 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 242
Chemical Encounters: Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 242
6.12 Orbitals and Energy Levels in Multielectron Atoms 244
6.13 Electron Configurations and the Aufbau Principle 245
The Bottom Line 251
Key Words 251
Focus Your Learning 253
Chapter 7
Periodic Properties of the Elements 259
7.1 The Big Picture—Building the Periodic Table 260
7.2 The First Level of Structure—Metals, Nonmetals, and
Metalloids
265
NanoWorld / MacroWorld Big effects of the
very small: The diversity of steels 267
7.3 The Next Level of Structure—Groups
in the Periodic Table
269
Chemical Encounters: Commercial Uses of the
Main-Group Elements
269
Chemical Encounters: The Elements of Life 277
7.4 The Concept of Periodicity 279
7.5 Atomic Size 280
xiv Contents
7.6 Ionization Energies 282
7.7 Electron Affinity 286
7.8 Electronegativity 287
7.9 Reactivity 289
7.10 The Elements and the Environment 292
Chemical Encounters: The Elements and the Environment 292
The Bottom Line 294
Key Words 295
Focus Your Learning 296
Chapter 8
Bonding Basics 302
8.1 Modeling Bonds 303
8.2 Ionic Bonding 306
Chemical Encounters: The Uses and Behavior of
Sodium Chloride
306
Chemical Encounters: Focus on
Zeolites
310
Chemical Encounters: Fluoridated Water and
Tooth Decay
313
8.3 Covalent Bonding 316
Chemical Encounters: Tetraethyl Lead in Gasoline 317
Chemical Encounters: Calcium Channel Blockers 331
8.4 VSEPR—A Better Model 335
Chemical Encounters: Focus on Morphine 335
Issues and Controversies Flat molecules and ethics in science 336
8.5 Properties of Ionic and Molecular Compounds 343
The Bottom Line 347
Key Words 347
Focus Your Learning 349
Chapter 9
Advanced Models of Bonding 355
Chemical Encounters: Molecular Structure and Eyesight 356
9.1 Valence Bond Theory 358
9.2 Hybridization 363
9.3 Molecular Orbital Theory 374
NanoWorld / MacroWorld Big effects of the very small:
Color photography and the tricolor process 382
9.4 Putting It All Together 384
Chemical Encounters: Benzene, Stability, and MO Theory 384
9.5 Molecular Models in the Chemist’s Toolbox 386
The Bottom Line 386
Key Words 387
Focus Your Learning 387
Contents xv
Chapter 10
The Behavior and Applications of Gases 394
10.1 The Nature of Gases 396
10.2 Production of Hydrogen and the Meaning of Pressure 397
10.3 Mixtures of Gases—Dalton’s Law and Food Packaging 401
Chemical Encounters: Dalton’s Law and Food Packaging 401
10.4 The Gas Laws—Relating the Behavior of Gases to
Key Properties
403
Chemical Encounters: Balloons and Ozone
Analysis
403
10.5 The Ideal Gas Equation 413
10.6 Applications of the Ideal
Gas Equation
418
Chemical Encounters: Automobile Air Bags 419
Chemical Encounters: Acetylene 420
10.7 Kinetic-Molecular Theory 422
10.8 Effusion and Diffusion 424
10.9 Industrialization: A Wonderful, Yet Cautionary, Tale 427
Chemical Encounters: Ozone 427
NanoWorld / MacroWorld The big effects of the very small: Accumulation of ozone
at the earth’s surface 430
Chemical Encounters: The Greenhouse Effect 431
The Bottom Line 433
Key Words 433
Focus Your Learning 434
Chapter 11
The Chemistry of Water and the Nature of Liquids 440
Chemical Encounters: Worldwide Water Use 441
11.1 The Structure of Water: An Introduction to Intermolecular Forces 443
11.2 A Closer Look at Intermolecular Forces
445
11.3 Impact of Intermolecular Forces on the Physical Properties of Water, I 451
11.4 Phase Diagrams 459
How do we know? The moons of Jupiter 461
Chemical Encounters: CO
2
as a Dry Cleaning Solvent 461
11.5 Impact of Intermolecular Forces on the Physical Properties of Water, II 462
11.6 Water: The Universal Solvent 465
11.7 Measures of Solution Concentration 468
Chemical Encounters: Composition of Seawater 470
11.8 The Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility 471
Chemical Encounters: Impact of the Solubility of Oxygen in Fresh Water 471
11.9 Colligative Properties 473
Chemical Encounters: Meeting Municipal Water Needs 480
The Bottom Line 482
Key Words 482
Focus Your Learning 484
Chapter 12
Carbon 491
12.1 Elemental Carbon 493
12.2 Crude Oil—the Basic Resource 494
Chemical Encounters: Crude Oil—the Basic Resource 494
12.3 Hydrocarbons 496
12.4 Separating the Hydrocarbons by Fractional Distillation 506
How do we know? Which hydrocarbons are in crude oil? 507
12.5 Processing Hydrocarbons 508
12.6 Typical Reactions of the Alkanes 510
12.7 The Functional Group Concept 511
12.8 Ethene, the CPC Bond, and Polymers 514
12.9 Alcohols 516
12.10 From Alcohols to Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids 517
12.11 From Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids to Esters 520
12.12 Condensation Polymers 522
12.13 Polyethers 524
12.14 Handedness in Molecules 525
12.15 Organic Chemistry and Modern Drug Discovery 527
The Bottom Line 531
Key Words 531
Focus Your Learning 533
Chapter 13
Modern Materials 539
Chemical Encounters: Materials in the Hospital 540
13.1 The Structure of Crystals 540
Chemical Encounters: X-ray Crystallography 546
13.2 Metals 551
Chemical Encounters: Photovoltaic Devices 555
Chemical Encounters: Dental Amalgams 557
13.3 Ceramics 557
NanoWorld / MacroWorld Big effects
of the very small: The chemistry
of cement 558
Chemical Encounters: Magnetic Resonance
Imaging
561
13.4 Plastics 563
13.5 Thin Films and Surface Analysis 568
Chemical Encounters: Heart Defibrillators 568
13.6 On the Horizon—What Does the Future Hold? 571
Chemical Encounters: “Green Chemistry” 571
The Bottom Line 573
Key Words 573
Focus Your Learning 575
xvi Contents
Contents xvii
Chapter 14
Thermodynamics: A Look at Why Reactions Happen 579
Chemical Encounters: Bioenergetics 580
14.1 Probability as a Predictor of Chemical Behavior 580
14.2 Why Do Chemical Reactions Happen? Entropy and the Second Law of
Thermodynamics
585
Chemical Encounters: Glycolysis 585
14.3 Temperature and Spontaneous Processes 591
Chemical Encounters: Psychrotrophs and Psychrophiles 591
NanoWorld / MacroWorld Big effects of the very small:
Industrial uses for the extremophiles 592
14.4 Calculating Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions 595
Chemical Encounters: More Glycolysis 595
14.5 Free Energy 600
Chemical Encounters: Pyruvate and Lactate 600
14.6 When ∆G = 0; A Taste of Equilibrium 607
Chemical Encounters: ATP Formation 607
The Bottom Line 612
Key Words 613
Focus Your Learning 613
Chapter 15
Chemical Kinetics 619
Chemical Encounters: Atrazine and the Environment 620
15.1 Reaction Rates 621
15.2 An Introduction to Rate Laws 627
15.3 Changes in Time—The Integrated Rate Law 631
Chemical Encounters: Decomposition of DDT 631
Chemical Encounters: Persistent Pesticides 636
15.4 Methods of Determining Rate Laws 641
15.5 Looking Back at Rate Laws 646
15.6 Reaction Mechanisms 647
Chemical Encounters: Metabolism
of Methoxychlor
647
15.7 Applications of Catalysts 654
Chemical Encounters: Destruction of Ozone 655
NanoWorld / MacroWorld Big effects of the very small:
Enzymes—nature’s catalysts 657
The Bottom Line 658
Key Words 658
Focus Your Learning 660
Chapter 16
Chemical Equilibrium 668
16.1 The Concept of Chemical Equilibrium 670
Chemical Encounters: Myoglobin in the Muscles 670
xviii Contents
16.2 Why Is Chemical Equilibrium a Useful Concept? 675
Chemical Encounters: Important Processes That Involve Equilibria 675
16.3 The Meaning of the Equilibrium Constant 676
Chemical Encounters: The Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid 676
How do we know? Equilibrium and chromatographic analysis 678
16.4 Working with Equilibrium Constants 682
16.5 Solving Equilibrium Problems—A Different Way of Thinking 687
16.6 Le Châtelier’s Principle 700
Chemical Encounters: Catalysts in Industry 704
16.7 Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant 705
The Bottom Line 707
Key Words 708
Focus Your Learning 708
Chapter 17
Acids and Bases 717
Chemical Encounters: Common Uses of Acids and Bases 718
17.1 What Are Acids and Bases? 719
17.2 Acid Strength 723
Chemical Encounters: Acids in Foods 724
17.3 The pH Scale 730
17.4 Determining the pH of Acidic
Solutions
736
17.5 Determining the pH of Basic
Solutions
743
Issues and Controversies Nicotine and pH
Control in Cigarettes 746
17.6 Polyprotic Acids 747
Chemical Encounters: Production and Uses of Phosphoric and
Sulfuric Acids
747
17.7 Assessing the Acid–Base Behavior of Salts in Aqueous Solution 752
Chemical Encounters: Acid–Base Properties of Amino Acids 755
17.8 Anhydrides in Aqueous Solution 757
Chemical Encounters: Acid Deposition and Acid-Neutralizing Capacity 757
The Bottom Line 759
Key Words 759
Focus Your Learning 760
Chapter 18
Applications of Aqueous Equilibria 765
Chemical Encounters: Industrial and Environmental Applications of Titrations 766
18.1 Buffers and the Common-Ion Effect 767
Chemical Encounters: Scrubbing Sulfur Dioxide Emissions 779
NanoWorld / MacroWorld Big effects of the very small: Buffers in biochemical studies
and medicine 785
18.2 Acid–Base Titrations 787
Chemical Encounters: Anthocyanins and Universal Indicators 801
18.3 Solubility Equilibria 802
18.4 Complex-Ion Equilibria 809
Chemical Encounters: Commercial Uses of Aminopolycarboxylic Acid Chelating Agents 810
The Bottom Line 815
Key Words 816
Focus Your Learning 817
Chapter 19
Electrochemistry 823
19.1 What Is Electrochemistry? 824
How do we know? DNA Profiling 825
19.2 Oxidation States—Electronic
Bookkeeping
826
19.3 Redox Equations 833
19.4 Electrochemical Cells 844
Chemical Encounters: The Electric Eel 844
19.5 Chemical Reactivity Series 849
19.6 Not-So-Standard Conditions:
The Nernst Equation
851
19.7 Electrolytic Reactions 857
Chemical Encounters: Electroplating 859
The Bottom Line 860
Key Words 861
Focus Your Learning 862
Chapter 20
Coordination Complexes 868
Chemical Encounters: Iron and Hemoglobin 869
20.1 Bonding in Coordination Complexes 870
20.2 Ligands 873
20.3 Coordination Number 875
How do we know? What is the nature of the structure, bonding,
and reactivity in cisplatin? 876
20.4 Structure 876
20.5 Isomers 878
20.6 Formulas and Names 881
20.7 Color and Coordination Compounds 883
Chemical Encounters: Transition Metals and Color 884
20.8 Chemical Reactions 892
Chemical Encounters: Cytochromes 894
The Bottom Line 894
Key Words 895
Focus Your Learning 896
Contents xix