Kelter P., Mosher M., Scott A. Chemistry. The Practical Science

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Capillary action The effect seen when a

liquid rises within a narrow tube as a

consequence of adhesive forces being

stronger than cohesive forces, 463–464

Carbohydrates Compounds that have the

general formula C

. These

compounds serve living organisms as

structural molecules (cellulose), as

cellular recognition sites, and for energy

storage (starch), 954–956, 960

Carbon

allotropes of, 493–494

band gap of, 553t

combustion of, 190

electron conﬁguration of, 246

isotopes of, 57–58, 902, 903t, 927f

Lewis dot symbol for, 305

molecular orbitals of, 552

oxidation numbers for, 154, 829–830

properties of, 272

sources and uses of, 268t, 272t

in steel, 267

thermodynamic data for, A10

See also Medicine

Chemists

career opportunities for, 36

educational degrees, 2

employment data for, 2

work done by, 3–4

Chiral A term used to denote molecules that

have a nonsuperimposable mirror image,

525–527, 572

Chiral center A carbon attached to four

different groups, 525

Chirality The quality of being chiral—that

is, of having a nonsuperimposable

mirror image, 525–527, 960–961

Chloride ion, 261

Chlorine

atomic mass of, 61

in drinking water, 157–158

gravimetric analysis of, 807

interaction with light, 358

ionization energy for, 282

Lewis dot symbol for, 308

mass spectrum of, 60f

ozone depletion and, 655

sources and uses of, 268t, 274t

thermodynamic data for, A10

Chlorine gas

production of, 405

uses of, 395t

Chlorine triﬂuoride, molecular geometry

of, 342

Chloroﬂuorocarbons (CFCs) Compounds

containing only carbon, chlorine, and

ﬂuorine. CFCs are typically used as

solvents and refrigerants and are

known to be harmful to the ozone

layer, 429

as greenhouse gas, 431

interaction with light, 380

list of common, 429t

ozone depletion and, 35, 341, 429–431

Chloroﬂuorohydrocarbons, 323

Chloroform, 345, 510, 511f

Chloromethane, 510

Chlorophyll, 173

Chocolate, 99–101, 462

Cholera, 157–158, 159f

Cholesterol, 95–96, 957–958

Cholesteryl benzoate, 550

Chromatography A chemical technique

involving the partition of a solute

between a stationary phase and a mobile

phase. The technique can be used to

separate or purify mixtures of solutes,

62–63, 507, 678–679

Chromium

complexes, 884, 888

electron conﬁguration of, 249

as heavy metal, 266

in steel, 266, 267

thermodynamic data for, A10

Chromosomes The packaged functional

units of DNA, 964

cis A molecule containing groups that are

ﬁxed on the same side of a bond that

cannot rotate, 503–504

cis isomer An isomer containing two similar

groups on the same side of the

compound, 880–881

Cisplatin, 529, 875, 876, 889

Citric acid, 723, 724f

Clapeyron, Benoit Paul Emile, 587

Classical mechanics The physical

description of macroscopic behavior

based on Newton’s equations of

motion, 225

Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emmanuel, 587

Clinoptilolite, 310

Index/Glossary A59

Closest packed structure A structure

wherein the atoms, molecules, or ions are

arranged in the most efﬁcient manner

possible, 544

Coagulation The precipitation of a solid

along with some dissolved organic

material, microorganisms and other

undesirable substances, 808

Coal, 197, 198, 492

Cobalt

complexes, 889–890

in steel, 267

Cobalt chloride, boiling-point elevation

of, 476

Cocaine, 746

Codeine, 88, 89f,91

Codon A three-nucleic-acid sequence on an

mRNA that is translated into a

particular amino acid during protein

synthesis, 943

Coefﬁcients The numbers placed in front of

the substances in a chemical equation

that reﬂect the speciﬁc numbers of units

of those substances required to balance

the equation, 105

Coenzymes, 948

Cohesive forces The collection of

intermolecular forces that hold a

compound within its particular phase,

463–464

Coinage metals, 66t, 125, 547

Cold packs, 175

Collagen A structural protein that exhibits a

linear tertiary structure formed from

intertwined alpha helices. It is found in

connective tissues in the body, 946

Colligative properties Physical properties of

a solution that depend only on the

amount of the solute and not on its

identity, including boiling-point

elevation, freezing-point depression,

vapor pressure lowering, and osmotic

pressure, 473–481

boiling-point elevation, 475–477

constants for selected compounds, A13

freezing-point depression, 478

osmosis, 479–480

vapor pressure lowering, 474–475

Collision theory A theory that correlates the

number of properly oriented collisions

with the rate of the reaction, 629–630

Color

changes, and acid–base chemistry, 723,

799–801

coordination complexes and, 873, 880,

883–892

human perception of, 356

as intensive property, 23t

molecular structure and, 233

photography, 382–383

transition metals and, 884–885

Columbia space shuttle, 7

Combined gas equation The combination of

Avogadro’s law, Boyle’s law, and

Charles’s law, 411–412, 413t

Combustion

enthalpy of, 189–191, 334, 358

as redox reaction, 152, 153f

Common-ion effect The addition of an ion

common to one of the species in the

solution, causing the equilibrium to shift

away from production of that species,

737–738, 768–771

Complete ionic equation A chemical

equation that indicates all of the ions

present in a reaction as individual

entities, 144–145, 146

Complex-ion equilibria, 809–815

chelating agents and, 810–813

conditional formation constant, 813–814

formation constants, 809–810, 811t, A16

Composite material A material made from

two or more different substances,

565, 568

Composition The relative proportions of the

elements in a compound,5

law of deﬁnite, 47–49

Compounds A substance containing

different elements chemically bonded

together,5

covalent, 72–73

ionic, 67–70, 73–75

naming, 71–76

Concentration An intensive property of a

solution that describes the amount of

solute dissolved per volume of solution or

solvent. The typical concentration units

include molarity, ppm, and w/w,

131–140, 468–471

changes in, and equilibrium,

701–702, 705t

dilution of, 137–139

effective, in solution, 675

equilibrium, 672–675, 685–686

impact on electrochemical cells, 851–854

as intensive property, 131

measures based on mass, 470–471

measures based on moles, 468–470

molality, 468

molarity, 131–135, 468

mole fractions, 468

parts per million, per billion, per trillion,

135–137, 470

reaction rates and, 622, 627–628, 644

spontaneity and, 611

weight percent, 470

Concentration cell A cell in which different

concentrations of identical ions on both

sides of the cell provide the driving force

for the reaction, 853–854

Concrete, 558

Condensation The process of a gas

undergoing a phase transition to a

liquid; the opposite of evaporation,

452–453

Condensation polymerization Formation

of a polymer by condensation reactions,

522–523

Condensation reaction A reaction in which

two molecules become joined in a process

accompanied by the elimination of a

small molecule such as water or HCl,

520, 935–936

Conditional formation constant (K



) The

formation constant that accounts for the

free metal ion and its associated ligand,

813–814

Conduction band The collection of empty

molecular orbitals on a metal, 552–554

Conductor A substance that contains a very

small band gap, 554

metals, 551, 553–555, 561–562

superconductors, 561–563

Cones, 356

Conﬁdence interval, A7–A8

Conﬁdence limit, A7–A8

Conjugate acid–base pairs, 720–722, 753

in pH indicators, 799

strength of, 726–727

Conjugate acid The acid that results after

accepting a proton, 720–722

Conjugate base The base that results after

donating a proton, 720–722

Conjugated π bonds An extended series of

alternating single and double bonds,

374, 381, 383

delocalized, 384–385

Conjugation The presence of conjugated π

bonds—that is, a series of at least two

double bonds alternating with single

bonds, 374

Constant-volume calorimetry A form of

calorimetry in which the reacting system

is sealed within a chamber of ﬁxed

volume, and the only way the system can

release or gain energy is by the exchange

of heat with the surroundings, 184

Contact process An industrial method used

to produce sulfuric acid from elemental

sulfur, 676–677, 704, 748, 757

Contractile proteins, 953

Conversion factor A mathematical

expression of the ratio of one unit to

another, used to convert quantities from

one system of units to another, 25–28

Cooling tower A large industrial apparatus

used to condense gaseous vapor into

liquid or to cool water that has been

heated before it is discharged, 471, 472f

Coordinate covalent bonds A covalent bond

that results from the donation of two

electrons from one of the two atoms

involved in the bond. The resulting bond

is indistinguishable from other covalent

bonds, 330

chelates and, 810

in coordination complexes, 870–873

Coordinates Forms a coordinate covalent

bond, 871

Coordination complexes A metal bonded to

two or more ligands via coordinate

covalent bonds, 869–895

bonding in, 870–873

color and, 880, 883–892

coordination numbers, 875

A60 Index/Glossary

crystal ﬁeld theory and, 886–891

electron transfer reactions of, 894

formation constant and, 809–810

formulas for, 881

isomers, 878–881

ligand exchange reactions of, 892–893

ligands, 809, 810, 873–875

magnetism and, 891–892

nomenclature for, 881–883

structure of, 876–878

Coordination number The number of

coordinate covalent bonds that form in a

complex, 875, 877–878

Coordination sphere isomers Substances

that contain different ligands in the

coordination spheres of complex cations

and complex anions, 878, 879–880

Copper

atomic mass of, 60

emission spectrum for, 220f

as heavy metal, 266

oxidation products of, 586

pipes, 849

properties of, 5, 64

reaction with nitric acid, 833, 834f,

837–838, 842–843, 845–846, 855

reduction potential of, 834, 835, 850

speciﬁc heat of, 181t

structure of, 544

thermodynamic data for, A10

uses of, 265, 267

Copper chloride, reaction with zinc,

851–852

Copper ferrocyanide, 480

Core, Earth’s, 292–293

Core electrons Electrons in the conﬁguration

of an atom that are not in the highest

principal energy shell, 247

Correlation coefﬁcient, 646

Corrosion The deterioration of a metal as a

consequence of oxidation, 152, 153f,

291–292, 850

Cosmic rays, 906f

Coulomb, Charles Augustin, 314

Coulomb The unit of electrical charge,55

Coulomb’s law The force between two

particles is proportional to the product of

the charges (Q) on each particle divided

by the square of their distance of

separation (d), 314–315

Coupled reactions, 611–612

Covalent bonds A sharing of electrons

between two adjacent atoms. This

sharing can be complete of partial, 70,

304, 316–335

bond energies for selected, 332t

coordinate, 330

description of, 317–319

electronegativity and, 319–320

energy of, 331–334

examples of, 317

formal charges and, 323–325

Lewis dot structures for, 322–323

multiple bonds, 325–327

nonpolar, 320–321

octet rule exceptions in, 329–331

polar, 319–321

resonance structures, 327–328

types of, 320–321

valence bond theory for, 359–362

Covalent radius Half the distance between

the nuclei in a molecule consisting of

identical atoms. Also known as the

atomic radius, 280

Cracking The breaking up of hydrocarbons

into smaller hydrocarbons, using heat

and in some cases steam and/or

catalysts, 508

Crick, Francis, 936–937

Critical mass The amount of ﬁssionable

fuel needed to sustain a chain

reaction, 923

Critical point The temperature and pressure

at which the physical properties of the

liquid phase and vapor phase of a

substance become indistinguishable, 460

Critical pressure The highest pressure at

which a liquid and gas coexist in

equilibrium, 460

Critical temperature The highest

temperature at which a liquid and a gas

coexist in equilibrium, 460

Crosslinking Reactions that covalently bond

two or more individual strands of a

polymer together, 563

18-crown-6, 280f

Crude oil, 491, 492

composition of, 494–496

fractional distillation of, 506–508

gas chromatography analysis of, 507

processing, 508–509

sources of, 494, 496t

uses of, 492, 496, 508t

Crust, Earth’s, 292f, 293, 294t, 857

Crystal ﬁeld splitting energy The difference

in energy between the

d orbital sets that

arises because of the presence of ligands

around a metal; symbolized by , 887

Crystal ﬁeld theory, 886–891

octahedral crystal ﬁeld splitting,

886–887

result of d orbital splitting, 889–891

square planar crystal ﬁeld splitting, 887

tetrahedral crystal ﬁeld splitting, 887

Crystalline (or crystal) lattice A highly

ordered, three-dimensional arrangement

of atoms, ions, or molecules into a solid,

308–309, 542–543

Crystalline solids A solid made from atoms,

ions, or molecules in a highly ordered

long-range repeating pattern,

540–550

density of, 548–549

lattice structures, 542–543

liquid crystals, 550

metallic crystals, 543–545

X-ray crystallography of, 545–549

Cubic closest packed (ccp) structure A

closest packed structure made by

staggering a second and third row of

particles so that none of the rows line

up, 544

Cubic decimeter (dm

) The derived unit

commonly used to measure volumes in

the laboratory, see liter,22

Cubic lattices, 542–543

Cubic meter (m

) The derived SI unit used

for volume,22

Culp, Randy, 62

Cuprite, 586

Curie (Ci) A larger unit of activity than

the becquerel, equivalent to

3.7 × 10

Bq, 911

Cyanide leaching method, 126, 158

Cyanidin-based compounds, color

of, 233

Cyclexanone, 513

Cyclic alkanes Alkanes that possess a group

of carbon atoms joined in a ring,

500, 502

Cyclic molecules, 447

Cyclobutane, 500f, 502, 503

Cyclohexane, 500f

freezing-point depression for, 478t

solubility of, 467

Cyclopentane, 500f

Cyclopropane, 500f, 502

Cyclotron, 900

Cysteine, 940f

Cytochromes, 785, 872, 894

Cytosine, 935, 936, 937f

d orbital An orbital with the quantum

number l = 2, 240

color and, 884, 885, 889–891

in coordination complexes, 884–891

Daguerreotype, 382

Dalton, John, 49–51, 401

Dalton’s atomic theory The theory,

developed by John Dalton, that all

substances are composed of indivisible

atoms, 49–51

Dalton’s law of partial pressures The total

pressure of a mixture of gases is the

simple sum of the individual pressures of

all the gaseous components, 401–402

Daughter nuclide An isotope that is the

product of a nuclear reaction, 904, 923

Davey, Humphrey, 858

Davy, Edmund, 420

d-block elements, 261, 276–277

DDE (dichlorodiphenyldiethene), 631–633

DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane),

631–633

10-Deacetylbaccatin III, 528–529

de Broglie, Louis, 228

de Broglie equation, 228–229, 230–231

Decane, 497t

Decay series A series of nuclear reactions that

a large nuclide undergoes as it changes

from an unstable and radioactive nucleus

to a stable nucleus, 907–909

Degenerate orbitals Orbitals that have

equal energies, 236, 239, 364

Index/Glossary A61

Degree Celsius (°C) The unit of temperature

on the Celsius scale,19

Degree Fahrenheit (°F) The unit of

temperature on the Fahrenheit scale,

18–19

Dehydrogenation The removal of hydrogen,

510–511

Delocalized Term used to describe a π

system wherein the electron density in a

molecule can be distributed among more

than two atoms, 233, 384–385

Democritus, 46–47

Denature To destroy the biochemical activity

of a protein, 946

Density The mass of a substance that is

present in a given volume of the

substance. The SI unit for measuring

density is kilograms per cubic meter

(kg/m

), 8, 22, 682

of crystalline solids, 548–549

as derived unit, 22–23

as intensive property, 23–24

of metals, 25

and molar mass of gases, 419

Dental amalgams, 557

Deoxyhemoglobin, 870f, 892

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) A huge

nucleotide polymer that has a double-

helical structure. Each strand of the

DNA polymer complements the other by

forming base pairs. DNA provides

instructions for the synthesis of proteins

and enzymes that carry out the

biological activities of the cell, 935–939

basic structure of, 70, 935–939

compared with RNA, 941–942

composition of, 47, 65

DNA proﬁling, 825

effects of radiation on, 911

impact of damage to, 945

location of, 939

as multi-charged ion, 938

nucleotide sequence of, 941

replication process, 938–939

Deoxyribose A dehydrated carbohydrate

used in the construction of DNA, 935,

937f, 941

Dependent variable, A6

Deposition The process of a gas undergoing

a phase transition to a solid; the opposite

of sublimation, 452

Derived units Units formed by the

combination of SI base units, 21–23

Desalination The process that removes

dissolved salts from seawater to make

potable water, 10–11, 480–481

Desorbed Released from a surface, 656

Deuterium, 57, 58t, 244

Diamagnetism The ability of a substance

to be repelled from a magnetic ﬁeld.

This property arises because all of the

electrons in the molecule are paired,

380, 891

Diamminedichloroplatinum(II), 881–882

Diamond

band gap of, 554

structure of, 493

Diatomic elements Elements whose normal

state is in the form of molecules

composed of two atoms attached together

(most notably H

, N

, O

, F

, Cl

, Br

and I

),51f,70,71

MO diagrams for, 378–380

Diazinon, 638

Dibasic salt A salt that can accept two

hydrogen ions, 748

Dichloroethane, 514

Dichloromethane, 385t, 510

Diet

organic foods, 62–63

power of peanuts, 180–181

quantitative chemistry and, 116

units of Calories, 179–181

vitamins, 116, 950–952

Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA),

811t

Diethyl ether, 512t, 524

Diffraction pattern A pattern of constructive

and destructive interference after EMR

passes through a solid material, 546

Diffusion The process by which two or more

substances mix, 424–427

entropy and, 588

Dilithium, 362, 378, 551

Dilution

ideal solutions and, 474

of solutions, 137–139

Dimensional analysis An extremely useful

method for performing calculations by

using appropriate conversion factors and

allowing units (dimensions) to cancel

out, leaving only the desired answer in

the desired units, 26–28

2,2-Dimethylbutane, 446–447

2,3-Dimethylbutane, 446–447

Dimethyl mercury, 876

2,4-Dimethylpentane, 498f

2,2-Dimethylpropane, 498

2,5-Dimethylpyrazine, formulas for, 99–101

Dinitrogen tetroxide, reaction with

methylhydrazine, 195–196

Diode lasers, 224t

Dipole–dipole forces, 448

Dipole moment The polarization of

electrons in a molecule that results in a

net unequal distribution of charges

throughout the molecule, 344–345, 444

Diprotic Can produce 2 mol of H

when it

dissolves, 151

Diprotic acid An acid that contains two

acidic protons, 736

Disaccharide A carbohydrate made from the

condensation of two simple sugars,

955f, 956

Disorder, vs. entropy, 588

Disproportionation A reaction in which a

single reactant is both the oxidizing and

reducing agent, 830–831

Dissociation constant, 683

Distribution constant The equilibrium

constant that describes the partitioning

of a solute between two immiscible

phases, 678

DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid

Dobereiner, Johan, 263

Dodecane, boiling point of, 447–448

Dopamine, 963

Dope To add an impurity to a pure

semiconductor to alter its conductive

properties, 554

Double bond A covalent bond consisting

of two individual bonding pairs of

electrons, 326, 327

Double helix, 936–937

“Dover Boat,” 51–52

Drug testing

chromatography for, 678, 679f

mass spectrometer for, 61, 62f

Ductile Able to be pulled or drawn into a

wire, 552–553, 556

Duet rule The exception to the octet rule

involving the atoms H and He. A full

valence shell for the atoms H and He,

306, 323, 359

Dynamic equilibrium A term sometimes

used in chemistry as synonymous with

equilibrium to emphasize that

molecular-level equilibrium is not

static, 453

Earth

gravitational force of, 398

structure of, 292–294

EDTA. See Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

Effusion The process by which a gas escapes

through a small hole, 424–427

Einstein, Albert, 47, 215, 222

Ekasilicon, 264

Electric current, 17t,20

Electric eel, 844

Electrochemical cells A device that allows

the exchange between chemical and

electrical energy, 825–826, 844–849

cell notation, 847

commercial batteries, 846, 847–849

concentration cell, 853–854

electrolytic cells, 826

fuel cells, 826, 827f, 830

heart cells, 853–854

in laboratory, 845–846

voltaic cells, 825–826

Electrochemistry The study of the reduction

and oxidation processes that occur at the

meeting point of different phases of a

system, 824–860

balancing redox reactions, 836–841

chemical reactivity series and, 849–850

deﬁned, 824–826

determining standard voltage, 844

electrochemical cells, 825–826, 844–849

electrolytic reactions, 857–860

A62 Index/Glossary

half-reaction potentials, 834–836

manipulating half-cell reactions, 841–844

Nernst equation and, 851–857

overpotential in, 858

oxidation states, 826–833

redox equations, 833–844

of smog, 832–833

standard hydrogen electrode reaction, 835

thermodynamics and, 834–836, 841–844,

855–856

Electrochemists Scientists who create or

analyze systems that allow exchanges

between chemical and electrical

energy, 824

Electrode A metal surface that acts as a

collector or distributor for electrons,

826, 845

Electrodialysis The process of removing

unwanted salts from a solution through

a series of semipermeable membranes

by applying an electrical charge, 10–11

Electrodics The study of the interactions that

occur between a solution of electrolytes

and an electrical conductor, often a

metal, 825

Electrolysis A process in which an electric

current passing through a solution

causes a chemical reaction, 397,

857–860

applications of, 859

calculations involving, 859–860

Electrolytes A compound that produces ions

when dissolved in water, 129–131,

144, 542

in electrochemical cells, 845–846

van’t Hoff factors for, 476, 477t

Electrolytic cell A cell that requires the

addition of electrical energy to drive the

chemical reaction under study, 826

Electromagnetic radiation Energy that

propagates through space. Examples

include visible light, X-rays, and

radiowaves, 170, 211–216

commercial uses of, 215t

emission spectrum and, 216–220

energy of, 215–216

gamma rays, 906

photosynthesis and, 173

radio frequencies, 214

spectral range of, 213

wave–particle duality of, 230–231

Electromagnetic spectrum The entire range

of radiation as a function of wavelength,

frequency, or energy, 211

Electromotive force (emf) A measure of

how strongly a species pulls electrons

toward itself in a redox process. Also

known as voltage, 834

Electron afﬁnity The energy change

associated with the addition of an

electron to an atom in the gaseous state,

286–287

Electron capture (EC) A type of radioactive

decay that occurs when an inner-core

electron is captured by a proton from the

nucleus to form a neutron. The process is

usually accompanied by the emission of

X-rays, 907, 919t

Electron conﬁgurations The complete list of

ﬁlled orbitals in an atom, 245–250

for coordination complexes, 886–889

gas-phase, 248, 249

ground-state, 245–250

of ions, 305–306

noble gas, 275, 306, 317

octet rule and, 306

periodic table and, 246–250, 261–262

Electronegativity The relative ability of an

atom participating in a chemical bond to

attract electrons to itself, 287, 319

acid strength and, 728

bond dipoles and, 343–345

covalent bonds and, 317, 319–321

Pauling scale, 287–289, 320

periodicity of, 287–289

Electron-group geometry The positions of

the groups of electrons (lone pairs and

bonding pairs) around a central atom in

three dimensions, 337–341

Electronic transition A change in atomic or

molecular energy level made by an electron

bound in an atom or molecule, 221–222

Electron shielding The ability of electrons in

lower energy orbitals to decrease the

nuclear charge felt by electrons in higher

energy orbitals, 244–245, 310–311

Electrons One of the subatomic particles of

which atoms are composed. Electrons

carry a charge of –1

discovery of, 52–53

energy levels of, 220–221

in ion formation, 67

properties of, 55, 56

wave nature of, 227–229

wave–particle duality of, 227

Electron spin, 242

Electron spin quantum number The

quantum number, m

, that describes the

spin of an electron. Also known as the

spin angular momentum quantum

number, 236, 242, 243t

Electron subshell The energy level occupied

by electrons that share the same values

for both n and l, 235, 246

Electrophorus, 826f

Electroplates, 844

Electroplating The process of depositing

metals onto a conducting surface,

125–126, 859–860

Electroweak force The fundamental force

responsible for the attraction between

objects carrying opposite electric charges,

for the repulsion between objects

carrying the same electric charge, and for

some transformations within subatomic

particles. It is also responsible for the

phenomena of magnetism and light,

169t, 172

Electrowinning The isolation of pure metals

from a solution of metal ions, 857–858

Elementary step A single step in a

mechanism that indicates how reactants

proceed toward products, 648–649

Elements A substance that contains only one

kind of atom. All elements are listed in

the periodic table of the elements,5

in the environment, 292–294

of human life, 277–278

periodic table of, 64–66

reference form of, 187, 189

superheavy, 918

Emerald, 884

Emission spectroscopy The measurement of

how atoms and molecules give off

electromagnetic radiation as a function

of the wavelength or frequency of the

radiation, 216

Emission spectrum A plot of the intensity of

radiation as a function of wavelength or

frequency in an emission experiment,

216–217

for different metals, 220f

for hydrogen, 217–219, 222–223

solar, 216, 217f

Empirical formula A chemical formula

indicating the ratio in which elements

are found to be present in a particular

compound, regardless of the molecular

structure of the compound, 71, 99–102

Empirically derived Derived from

experiments and observations rather

than from theory, 219

Enantiomers A pair of molecules that are

nonsuperimposable mirror images, 960

Endorphins, 963, 964f

Endoscope, 559–560

Endothermic reaction A reaction that

absorbs energy from the surroundings,

175, 652, 703

End point In a titration, the volume of the

added reactant that causes a visual

change in the color of the indicator,

140, 801

Energy, 168–200

activation, 174

binding, 915–917

calorimetry for measuring, 182–185

chemical, 172

concept of, 169–178, 444

as derived unit, 22t

electromagnetic radiation, 170, 173,

215–216

enthalpy and, 186–191

as extensive property, 23t

heat and reaction proﬁle diagrams,

174–175

heat capacity, 182–185

Hess’s law, 191–197

human consumption of, 197–199

internal, 177–178

law of conservation of, 171, 178

vs. matter, 4–5

Index/Glossary A63

Energy (continued)

potential vs. kinetic, 170–174

renewable sources of, 198–199

speciﬁc heat capacity, 181–185

standard enthalpies of reaction, 187–190

as state function, 191

units of, 176, 179–181, 210

work and, 169, 176–177

Energy levels The allowed orbits that

electrons may occupy in an atom, 221

in Bohr’s model, 220–221, 234–235

in multielectron atoms, 244–245

periodicity of, 262

wave functions and, 232–233

English system, of measurement, 16

Enthalpy A thermodynamic quantity

symbolized by H and deﬁned as

H = U + PV, 186–188

bond dissociation energies and,

332–333

of combustion, 334, 358

Hess’s law and, 191–197

lattice, 313–315

manipulating, 190–191

reaction enthalpies from enthalpies of

formation, 195–197

standard enthalpies of reaction, 187–190

standard enthalpy of combustion,

189–191

standard enthalpy of formation, 188–189

as state function, 191–192

Enthalpy of bond dissociation (

diss

The enthalpy change related to breaking

1 mol of bonds in a gaseous species. Also

known as the bond dissociation energy,

332–333

Entropy A measure of how the energy and

matter of a system are distributed

throughout the system, 587–588

calculating changes in, 595–600

phase changes and, 591–595

second law of thermodynamics and,

588–590

standard molar, 598–599

third law of thermodynamics and, 598

Environmental chemist A scientist who

studies the interactions of compounds in

the environment, 620–621, 654

Environmental concerns

acid deposition, 757–758

automobiles, 430

clean water, 135–137, 157–159, 470, 481

future challenges, 35

Green Chemistry and, 571–572

greenhouse effect, 197, 431–432

heavy metals, 145–146, 266

mercury, 876–877

nitrogen oxides, 757–758, 832–833

ozone depletion, 35, 427–431, 629, 640,

651, 653, 655

sulfur oxides, 273

thermal pollution, 471

use of zeolites for, 310, 572

water consumption, 441–443

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),

135, 157, 470, 620

Environment The world around us,

comprising the Earth and its

atmosphere. We ourselves are part of the

environment, 292–294

Enzymes, 277, 278

buffers and, 785

in cells, 588, 589f, 590

in chemistry of life, 947–952

chirality of, 960

classes of reactions for, 949

in DNA replication, 938

of extremophiles, 592–593

proteins as, 953

regulation of, 948–949

structure of, 545, 946

Ephedrines, 746

Epothilones, 530

Epoxide A compound containing a

triangular ring of two carbon atoms

linked by an oxygen atom, known as the

epoxide group, 524

Epoxy resins Polymer resins containing the

epoxide group, in which two carbon

atoms and an oxygen atom form a cyclic

ether ring, 524

Equations. See Chemical equations

Equatorial position The position of a

portion of a molecule when it is arranged

along the x-axis or y-axis of the

molecule, 340, 342

Equilibrium The state of a reaction when

G = 0. The reaction hasn’t stopped;

rather, the rates of the forward and

reverse reactions are equal. A system of

reversible reactions in which the forward

and reverse reactions occur at equal

rates, such that no net change in the

concentrations occurs, even though

both reactions continue, 670

calculating equilibrium concentrations,

672, 685–686

chromatographic analysis and, 678–679

concentration changes, 701–702

concept of, 608–609, 670–675

determining important reactions, 688

dynamic, 453

effect of catalysts on, 704

free energy and, 607–612, 670, 671, 692,

705–707

heterogeneous equilibrium, 682

homogeneous equilibrium, 682

ICEA tables, 691–692, 695–696, 701

importance of, 675–676

Le Châtelier’s principle, 700–705

mass-action expression, 672–675

meaning of equilibrium constant,

676–682

predicting direction of reaction, 688–690

pressure changes, 702–703

signiﬁcant processes involving, 676

solving equilibrium problems, 687–700

temperature changes, 703

using partial pressures, 686–687

vapor pressure, 453

working with equilibrium constants,

682–687

See also Aqueous equilibria

Equilibrium concentrations, 672–675,

685–686

Equilibrium constants (K) The value of the

equilibrium expression when it is solved

using the equilibrium concentrations of

reactants and products, 672–673

acid dissociation constant, 724–726

calculating equilibrium concentrations

from, 685–686

in combined reactions, 684–685

distribution constant, 678

formation constant, 809–810

free energy and, 705–707

intermediate values of, 698–700

large values of, 695–698

list of selected, A13–A16

meaning of, 676–682

Nernst equation and, 855–857

reaction quotient and, 688–689

small values of, 691–695

solubility product constant, 802

using partial pressures, 686–687

working with, 682–687

Equilibrium expression The ratio of

product to reactant concentrations raised

to the power of their stoichiometric

coefﬁcients. This expression relates the

equilibrium concentrations to the

equilibrium constant. It is also known as

the mass-action expression, 672–675

Equilibrium vapor pressure The pressure

exerted by the vapor of a liquid or solid

under equilibrium conditions, 453

Equivalence point The exact point at which

the reactant in a titration has been

neutralized (completely consumed) by

the titrant, 140, 789–790, 796, 800–801

Escherichia coli bacteria, 876

Esteriﬁcation The process by which an ester

is formed when the —OH group of an

alcohol participates in a condensation

reaction with the —COOH group of a

carboxylic acid, 522

Esters Compounds formed when an alcohol

and a carboxylic acid become bonded as

a result of a condensation reaction, 512t,

520–522

Estrogen, 958, 963

Ethanal (Acetaldehyde), 519–520

Ethane

boiling point of, 446, 450–451

bonding pairs in, 357

combustion of, 156–157, 358

formation of, 501, 656f

reaction with steam, 106, 110

structure of, 497

1,2-Ethanediol, 517, 518t

Ethanoate, 520f

Ethanoic acid. See Acetic acid

A64 Index/Glossary

Ethanoic anhydride

formation of, 104–105, 108–109

in synthesis of aspirin, 103–104

Ethanol, 512t

boiling-point elevation of, 476t

boiling point of, 450–451

composition of, 5

in cough syrups, 316f, 317

dissolution in water, 128

formation of, 514, 516–517, 603, 610

in gasoline, 509

oxidation of, 519

properties of, 6

solubility of, 467

speciﬁc heat of, 181t

Ethene (ethylene), 420f, 511, 512t

bonding patterns in, 370–371

combustion of, 358t

as feedstock molecule, 514, 516

hydrogenation of, 501, 514, 656f

polymerization of, 514–515

Ethers Any compound containing the ether

functional group (—C—O—C—),

512t, 524

Ethics in science, 336

Ethidium bromide, 309

Ethoxide, 520f

Ethylene. See Ethene

Ethylenediamine, 721, 874

Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)

complex formation with, 810–813, 875

structure of, 810f, 811t

titrations with, 681, 767, 810–815

Ethylene glycol

boiling point of, 450–451, 477

solubility of, 467

structure of, 518t

viscosity of, 462

Ethyl methyl ether, 524

Ethyne. See Acetylene

Evaporation The process of a liquid

undergoing a phase transition to a gas;

the opposite of condensation, 452–453

Exact number A number that can be known

with absolute certainty. Exact numbers

possess an inﬁnite number of signiﬁcant

ﬁgures,28

Excited state Any higher energy state than

the ground state characterized by the

existence of an electron in an orbital that

violates Hund’s Rule and/or the Aufbau

principle, 221–222

Exothermic reaction A reaction that releases

energy into the surroundings, 174–175,

652, 703

Expanded octet The existence of more than

eight electrons in the valence shell of an

atom. Atoms of atomic number greater

than 12 are capable of this feat. In the

third row of the periodic table, it

typically occurs in sulfur and

phosphorus, 330, 368–369

Experiments, 13f,14

Exponential notations, A1–A3

Extensive property A characteristic of a

substance that is dependent on the

quantity of that substance, 23–24

Extremophiles, 592–593

Exxon Valdez, 507

f orbital An orbital with quantum number

l = 3, 241

Face-centered cubic (fcc) unit cell A unit

cell built via the addition of an atom, ion,

or molecule at the center of each side of

the simple cubic unit cell, 543, 546,

547–549

Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, 19

Fahrenheit scale, 18–20, 21

Fairclough-Baity, Judith, 3, 12, 16, 22, 28,

31, 32

Faraday, Michael, 835, 859

Faraday’s constant A unit of electric charge

equal to the magnitude of charge on a

mole of electrons, 835–836, 859

Fats A triglyceride that is made from

carboxylic acids with long carbon chains

and has a relatively high melting point.

Typically derived from animal sources,

373, 957

Fatty acids Carboxylic acids that contain

long carbon chains. Commonly serve as

major building blocks for the production

of cell membranes, 373, 957

hydrogenated, 109, 110, 504

list of common, 957t

f-block elements, 261, 276

Federal Communications Commission

(FCC), 214

Fentanyl, 747t

Fermentation The biological process that

converts glucose into ethanol and carbon

dioxide, 516–517

Fermi, Enrico, 900, 920

Ferredoxins, 872

Ferromagnetism A property of a compound

that occurs when paramagnetic atoms

are close enough to each other (such as

in iron) that they reinforce their

attraction to the magnetic ﬁeld, such

that the whole is, in effect, greater than

the sum of its parts, 379–380, 891

Fiber optic wire, 559–560

Fibers A polymer whose chains are aligned in

one direction, 563–567

First ionization energy (I

) The energy

required to remove one electron from

each atom of an element in the gaseous

state, 282

First law of thermodynamics The total

change in the closed system’s energy in a

chemical process is equal to the heat ﬂow

(q) into the system and the work done

(w) on the system: U = q + w. Energy

is neither created nor destroyed; it is only

transferred from place to place and

converted from one form into another:

U

system

+ U

surroundings

= 0, 177–178,

589

First order A reaction is ﬁrst order in a

particular species when the rate of the

reaction depends on the concentration of

that species raised to the ﬁrst power, 628,

636–637, 644, 647t

Fission (nuclear ﬁssion) A type of nuclear

reaction wherein a large nucleus splits

into two or three smaller nuclei with the

release of energy, 917, 920–924

Flavor analysis, 62–63

Flight Data Recorder (FDR), 824–825

Flue-gas desulfurization A process used to

remove sulfur dioxide (and other sulfur

oxides) from combustion smoke, 779

Fluorapatite, 313, 315

Fluoride ion

in drinking water, 137–139, 313

electron conﬁguration of, 305

Lewis dot symbol for, 305

Fluorine

boiling point of, 446

electron conﬁguration of, 246

interaction with light, 358, 380

oxidation numbers for, 155t

reduction potential of, 835

thermodynamic data for, A10

uses of, 274t

Fluorine-18, 900

Fluoroapatite, 747, 748

Fluorosulfuric acid, 729

Food industry

catalysts used in, 657

ﬂavor analysis, 62-63

food packaging, 401, 407, 412, 426, 427f

pH meters, 772

use of chelates in, 812t

Force The mass of an object multiplied by its

acceleration, 397

calculating, 398

as derived unit, 22t

fundamental, 169

pressure and, 398–399

units of, 397–398

Formal charge The difference between the

number of valence electrons on the free

atom and the number of electrons

assigned to that atom in the molecule,

323–325, 326, 329

Formaldehyde, 512t

formation of, 517

molecular geometry of, 341

Formalin, 517

Formamide, 513t

Formation constant (K

) The equilibrium

constant describing the formation of a

stable complex. Typically K

values are

large. Also known as the stability

constant, 809–810, 811t, A16

conditional, 813–814

Formic acid, 512t

in aqueous solution, 721

electron density map of, 829f

Index/Glossary A65

Formic acid (continued)

freezing-point depression for, 478t

oxidation states for, 827, 829

Formic acid–formate ion buffer system,

774–775, 779–782, 783–784

Formula mass The total mass of all the

atoms present in the formula of an

ionic compound, in atomic mass units

(amu) or the mass of one mole of

formula units in grams per mole,

87–89, 92

Fossil fuel energy, 174, 197–198, 492

greenhouse effect and, 431–432

Fossils, 45, 46

Fractional distillation, 506–508

Francium, 270t

diameter of, 21

properties of, 284

Franklin, Rosalind, 937

Free energy (G) The state function that is

equal to the enthalpy minus the

temperature multiplied by the entropy.

Used to determine the spontaneity of a

process, 600–606

concentration and, 611

equilibrium and, 607–612, 670, 671, 692,

705–707

half-reaction potentials and, 835–836,

841–843, 851

pressure and, 609–610

temperature and, 608–609

Free energy of formation, 605–606

Free radicals Chemical species that carry an

unpaired electron and so are highly

reactive, 510

Freezing-point depression The lowering

of the melting point of a compound due

to the presence of a dissolved solute,

478, A13

Frequency A descriptor of electromagnetic

radiation. Deﬁned as the number of

waves that pass a given point per second,

in units of 1/s (s

−1

), 211–215

Frequency factor A term in the Arrhenius

equation that indicates the rate of

collision and the probability that

colliding reactants are oriented for a

successful reaction, 652

Fructose, 469, 585, 955–956

Fuel cells An electrochemical cell that utilizes

continually replaced oxidizing and

reducing reagents to produce electricity,

826, 827f, 830, 848t

Fuel sources

alternative, 334

as carbon based, 492

chemical challenges for, 35

fossil fuels, 197–198

human consumption of, 197–199, 492

hydrocarbons, 497

nuclear reactors, 921–922

photovoltaic devices, 555

renewable, 198–199

Fugacities (f ), 706

Fullerenes Forms of carbon based on the

structure of buckminsterfullerene, C

493–494

Functional groups Groups of atoms, or

arrangements of bonds, that bestow a

speciﬁc set of chemical and physical

properties on any compound that

contains them, 511–514, 530

2-Furylmethanethiol, 88

Fusion (nuclear fusion) A type of nuclear

reaction wherein small nuclei are joined

together to form a larger nucleus with

the release of energy. Nuclear fusion

powers the stars, 916

Fusion, heat of, 457

Galactose, 469

Galena, 261, 262f

Gallium, 264, 271t

Galvanic cell A cell that produces electricity

from a chemical reaction. Also known as

a voltaic cell, 825–826

Gamma rays (γ rays) A high-energy form of

electromagnetic radiation that is emitted

from the nucleus. Gamma rays

sometimes accompany alpha and beta

decays, 54–55, 213f, 215, 904, 906, 919t

penetration capability of, 909–910

Gas chromatography (GC) Analytical

technique in which components of a

mixture are separated by their different

ﬂow rates through a chromatography

column, driven by a carrier gas. A speciﬁc

chromatography technique in which the

mobile phase is a gas and the stationary

phaseisasolid, 62–63, 507, 678

Gases The phase of a substance characterized

by widely spaced components exhibiting

low density, ease of ﬂow, and the ability

to occupy an enclosed space in its

entirety, 10, 107, 443

amount–volume relationship, 404–405,

423

behavior and applications of, 394–432

behaviors of real, 416–417

characteristics of, 396–397, 422, 443

compressibility of, 396–397

effects of industrial use of, 427–432

effusion and diffusion of, 424–427

equilibrium constants for, 686

Gay-Lussac’s observations of, 50–51,

408–409

ideal, 396, 402

industrial, 395

kinetic-molecular theory of, 422–424

measures of pressure, 397–401

molar mass and density of, 418–419

molecular speeds of, 423–425

partial pressures, 401–402

pressure–volume relationship, 15–16,

405–408, 422

solubility of, 471, 472–473

temperature–volume relationship,

408–411, 423

Gas laws, 13, 403–413

Avogadro’s law, 404–405, 423

Boyle’s law, 15–16, 405–408, 422

Charles’s law, 408–411, 423

combined gas equation, 411–412

Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 401–402

Graham’s law of effusion, 426

ideal gas equation, 413–422

kinetic-molecular theory and, 422–424

van der Waals equation, 416–417