Kelter P., Mosher M., Scott A. Chemistry. The Practical Science

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Heptane, 497t, 509

Herbicide Any compound used to kill

unwanted plants, 619, 620, 641

Heroin, 15

Heroult, Paul, 858

Hertz (Hz), 211

Hess’s law Thermodynamic law stating that

the enthalpy change of a chemical

reaction is independent of the chemical

path or mechanism involved in the

reaction. This enables us to determine

the enthalpy changes of reactions that

might be very difﬁcult to actually

perform, 191–197, 313

Heterogeneous catalyst A speciﬁc catalyst

that exists in a different physical state

than the reaction, 656

Heterogeneous equilibrium An equilibrium

that results from reactants and products

in different phases or physical states, 682

Heterogeneous mixture A mixture that is

not uniformly mixed, so there are

different proportions of the components

in different parts of the mixture, 8–9

Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride, 882

Hexaamminenickel(II), 892

Hexachlorobenzene, 136

Hexadentate ligand A ligand that makes six

coordinate covalent bonds to a metal

ion, 810

Hexagonal closest packed (hcp) structure

A closest packed structure made by

staggering a second and third row of

particles in such a way that the ﬁrst and

third rows line up, 544

Hexane, 497t

boiling point of, 446–447

isomers of, 446–447, 498–499

meniscus of, 464

properties of, 385t

1,3,5-Hexatriene, 381

Hexose sugars, 955

High-density polyethylene (HDPE) A form

of polyethylene in which the molecules

are linear, with no branch points, 515

Highest-energy occupied molecular orbital

(HOMO) The most energetic molecular

orbital that contains at least one

electron, 378

High-fructose corn syrup, 657

High-spin A coordination complex with the

maximum number of unpaired

electrons, 888

Histidine, 940f

Hoffman, Felix, 15, 322

Homogeneous catalyst A speciﬁc catalyst

that exists in the same physical state as

the compounds in the reaction,

655–656

Homogeneous equilibrium An equilibrium

that results from reactants and products

in the same phase, or physical state, 682

Homogeneous mixture A mixture that is

uniformly mixed, so that it has the same

composition throughout. Also known as

a solution, 8–9, 126. See also Solutions

Homologous series A series of compounds

sharing the same general formula,

497, 501

Hormones Small molecules, such as steroids,

used by living organisms for intercellular

communication, 953, 963

Housing starts, 718f

Human eye, 355, 356–357

Human Genome Project, 935, 964

Human growth hormone, 755

Hund, Friedrich, 247

Hund’s rule When orbitals of equal energy

are available, the lowest energy

conﬁguration for an atom has the

maximum number of unpaired electrons

with parallel spins, 247, 370, 378

Hybridization The mathematical

combination of two or more orbitals to

provide new orbitals of equal energy,

363–374

advantages and disadvantages of,

372–373

algorithm for, 364t

application of, 371–372

deﬁnition of, 363–364

predicting state of molecule from, 373

shapes of hybrids, 367–368

sigma and pi bonds, 369–371

sp, sp

,sp

orbitals, 364–367

d orbitals, 368–369

Hydration The interaction of water (as the

solvent) with dissolved ions, 466, 479

Hydration sphere The shell of water

molecules surrounding a dissolved

molecule, ion, or other compound. This

shell arises because of the force of

attraction between the water molecules

and the solute, 127–128

Hydrazine, combustion of, 188–189

Hydrides, bonding in, 360, 361t

Hydrocarbons Compounds composed of

only hydrogen atoms and carbon atoms,

496–506

alkanes, 496–500, 510–511

alkenes, 500–501

alkyl groups, 504–506

alkynes, 501

aromatic, 504

in crude oil, 495t, 507

fractional distillation of, 506–508

functional groups and, 511–514

in gasoline, 509

processing, 508–509

saturated, 496

unsaturated, 501

Hydrochloric acid

applications for, 148–149

dilution of, 139

dissolution in water, 330, 720–721

pH in solution, 736

properties of, 149, 151

reaction with sodium carbonate, 145

reaction with sodium hydroxide, 143, 144,

150–151, 787–792, 831

reaction with zinc, 402

in solution with acetic acid, 742–743

strength of, 724, 725–726, 728

titration with ammonia, 796–798

Hydrochloroﬂuorocarbons (HCFCs), 431

Hydrochlorothiazide (HCT), 94

Hydrocracking A type of cracking that uses

heat plus a catalyst in the presence of

hydrogen gas, 508

Hydroelectric systems Power-generating

systems in which the power of falling

water is used to generate electricity,

197f, 199

Hydroﬂuoric acid, 719

dissociation of, 727

pH of solution of, 740–742

strength of, 728

Hydroﬂuorosilicic acid (HFSA), 137–139

Hydrogen

as alternative fuel source, 334

atomic orbitals of, 235, 236, 238–242, 244

Bohr’s model of, 220–224, 228

combustion of, 358t

diameter of, 21

electron conﬁguration of, 245–246, 359

emission spectrum for, 217–219, 220f,

222–223

in environment, 294

industrial synthesis of, 110

isotopes of, 57–58

oxidation number of, 154, 155t, 827

properties of, 270

reaction with nitrogen, 156

reaction with oxygen, 6–7, 10, 50–51

as reducing agent, 830

thermodynamic data for, A10

uses of, 270t

Hydrogenation The addition of a molecule

of hydrogen to a compound, 109–110,

501, 504

Hydrogen bond A particularly strong

intermolecular force of attraction

between F, O, and/or N and a hydrogen

atom, 448–451, 463

in DNA, 936, 938

Hydrogen chloride, 129

Hydrogen cyanide, bond dipoles in,

344–345

Hydrogen ﬂuoride

bond dipole in, 344

electron density of, 318f, 344

hydrogen bonds in, 450f

Lewis dot structure for, 323, 324

polar covalent bonds in, 318–319, 320

uses of, 323

valence bond model of, 359

Hydrogen fuel cell, 848t

Hydrogen gas

combustion of, 168

covalent bonding in, 318–319

growing demand for, 110

production of, 106, 360, 397, 402, 674

A68 Index/Glossary

reaction with oleic acid, 109

uses of, 395t

Hydrogen iodide, 672

Hydrogen ion

in acidic solutions, 128, 148, 719–720

in Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases,

720–722

equilibrium concentration of,

729–730

in formation of water, 150–151

pH and, 730–735

Hydrogen molecule

Lewis dot structure for, 322–323

MO diagram for, 378

valence bond model of, 359

Hydrogen peroxide

decomposition of, 624–625, 627–628,

633–635, 655, 830–831

formulas for, 71f

Hydrolases, 949

Hydronium ion. See Hydrogen ion

Hydrosphere, 292f, 293

Hydroxide ion

in acidic solutions, 737

in basic solutions, 129, 148, 719

in formation of water, 150–151

Lewis dot structure for, 325

Hydroxides, solubility of, 744

Hydroxyapatite, 313, 315, 557

Hydroxyatrazine, 620–621

N-(hydroxyethyl)-ethylenediaminetriacetic

acid (HEDTA), 811t

Hydroxyl free radicals, 911

Hydroxyl group The OOH functional

group, 514, 517

bis-Hydroxymethoxychlor, 647

Hypertonic Containing a concentration of

ions greater than that to which it is

judged against, 480

Hypochlorous acid, 727

Hypothesis A tentative explanation for an

observation—that is, a statement about

what we think might be an explanation

for an observation, 12, 13t

Hypotonic Containing a concentration of

ions lower than that to which it is judged

against, 480

Ice

ﬁshing, 473

structure of, 459, 461

ICEA tables, 691–692, 695–696, 701

Ideal gas constant R, the constant used in the

ideal gas equation. R =0.08206 L·atm/

mol·K, 414, 479

Ideal gas equation The equation relating the

pressure, volume, moles, and temperature

of an ideal gas, 413–422, 686

chemical reactions using, 419–422

compressed gas and, 414–415

physical change applications, 418–419

pressure and volume deviations,

416–417

Ideal gases Gases that behave as though each

particle has no interactions with any

other particle and occupies no molar

volume, 396, 402

Ideal solution A solution in which the

properties of the solute and the solvent

are not changed by dilution. This means

that other than being diluted, combining

solute and solvent in an ideal solution

does not release or absorb heat, and the

total volume in the solution is the sum

of the volumes of the solute and

solvent, 474

Immune system, 954

Independent variable, A6

Indium, 271t

Induced dipole A dipole produced in a

compound as a consequence of its

interaction with an adjacent dipole, 446

Industrial gases Gases used in industrial or

commercial applications, 395

impact on atmosphere, 427–432

Inert The opposite of labile; said of a

compound that is very slow to exchange

ligands, 893

Inert gases The Group VIIIA elements. Also

known as noble gases, 65, 274, 279–280.

See also Noble gases

Infrared spectrophotometer, 345

Infrared radiation, 213f, 215

in Hg A unit used to measure pressure.

29.921 in Hg equals 1 atmosphere, 399

Initial rate The instantaneous rate of

reaction when t = 0, 623, 626, 627

determining rate law from, 641–643

Inner transition elements The elements in

the f-block of the periodic table,

consisting of the lanthanides and

actinides, 66, 250, 275–276

Insecticide Any compound used to kill

unwanted insects, 620–621

Insoluble Not capable of dissolving in a

solvent to an appreciable extent, 145

Instantaneous rate The rate of reaction

measured at a speciﬁc instant in time.

The instantaneous rate is typically

measured by calculating the slope of a line

that is tangent to the curve drawn by

plotting [reactant] versus time, 623,

626, 627

Insulators A substance that contains a very

large band gap, 554

aerogels, 573

ceramic, 557–559

Insulin, 953, 963

Integrated ﬁrst-order rate law An expression

derived from a ﬁrst-order rate law that

illustrates how the concentrations of

reactants vary as a function of time,

633–636

Integrated rate laws A form of the rate law

that illustrates how the concentration of

reactants vary as a function of time,

631–640

Integrated second-order rate law An

expression derived from a second-order

rate law that illustrates how the

concentrations of reactants vary as a

function of time, 639–640

Integrated zero-order rate law An

expression derived from zero-order rate

law that illustrates how the

concentrations of reactants vary as

function of time, 639

Intensive property A characteristic of a

substance that is independent of the

quantity of that substance, 23–24

Intermediate A compound that is produced

in a reaction and then consumed in the

reaction. Intermediates are not indicated

in the overall reaction equation, 650

Intermolecular forces A force of attraction

between two molecules, 444

capillary action and, 463–464

compared with chemical bonds, 444–445

of gases, 396, 422

hydrogen bonds, 448–451

London forces, 445–448

permanent dipole–dipole forces, 448

phase changes and, 451–452

in solids, 541–542

surface tension and, 462–463

van der Waals forces, 445

vapor pressure, 452–455

viscosity and, 462

in water, 444–445, 451–458, 462–464

Internal energy (U) The energy of a system

deﬁned as the sum of the kinetic and

potential energies. Absolute internal

energy is difﬁcult to measure,

177–178

International System (SI) The International

System (Systéme International)of

agreed-upon base units, derived units,

and preﬁxes used to measure physical

quantities, 17–21. See also Measurement

International Telecommunications Union

(ITU), 214

International Union of Pure and Applied

Chemists (IUPAC), 71–72, 270, 500

Interstitial alloys An alloy made by the

addition of solute metals placed in the

existing spaces within a solvent

metal, 556

Intravenous solutions, 480, 540

Iodine

electron conﬁguration of, 249

radiopharmaceutical use of, 924–925, 926f

thermodynamic data for, A10

in titration, 140–143

uses of, 274t

Iodine-125, 907

Ion–dipole interaction An attraction

between an ion and a compound with a

dipole, 466

Ionic bonds A strong electrostatic attraction

between ions of opposite charges, 304,

306–316

Index/Glossary A69

Ionic bonds (continued)

description of, 308

electronegativity differences in, 321

energy of, 313–316

examples of, 308–309

sizes of ions, 309–312

Ionic compounds A compound composed

of ions, 67–70

charge of ions in, 68–69

dissolution in water, 127–128, 129, 130,

131t, 316–317

lattice enthalpies of, 313–316

list of important, 307t

naming binary, 73–75

properties of, 70, 343–346

salts as, 752

solubility rules for, 146, 147

Ionics The study of the behavior of ions

dissolved in liquids, 825

Ionic solids Solids made up of ionic

compounds held together by strong

electrostatic forces of attraction between

adjacent cations and anions, 541t, 542

solubility of, 472, 802–804

“ionic sponge,” 310

Ionization energy The energy needed to

ionize an atom (or molecule or ion) by

removing an electron from it, 282–286

reactivity and, 282–283

for selected elements, 282f

Ionization isomers Isomers that differ in the

placement of counter ions and ligands,

878, 879, 880t

Ionizing radiation Radiation such as alpha

and beta particles, gamma rays, or

X-rays that is capable of removing an

electron from an atom or a bond when

it interacts with matter, 910–912

Ion pair Ions of opposite charges that exist in

solution as an ionically bonded pair. Ions

in solution that associate as a unit, 308,

804–805

Ions An electrically charged entity that

results when an atom has gained or lost

electrons, 52, 56

cations and anions, 56

complex, 809–815

electron conﬁgurations of, 305–306

formation of, 67

Lewis dot symbols for, 305

list of common, 69

oxidation numbers for, 155t

polyatomic, 75–76

sizes of, 309–312

spectator, 144

Iron

binding energy of, 916, 917

coordination number for, 875

crystal structure of, 543

density of, 549

in environment, 293

in hemoglobin, 260, 291, 869–870, 871,

877, 892

isotopes of, 903t

in natural water, 870–871

properties of, 64, 260, 261

reactivity of, 289–290, 291–292, 850

rusting of, 152, 586t, 622, 850

speciﬁc heat of, 181t

in steel, 265–266, 267

thermodynamic data for, A11

Iron chloride, 74

Iron oxide

formation of, 152, 153, 154

as ionic compound, 307t

in thermite reaction, 196–197

Iron pyrite, 261, 262f

Iron(II) sulﬁde, 48

Irvine, Andrew, 582

Isoelectric pH pH value at which an amino

acid is in the zwitterion form and so is

electrically neutral overall, 756

Isoelectronic Having the same electron

conﬁguration, 305, 306

Isoleucine, 940f

Isomerases, 949

Isomers

coordination complex, 878–881

coordination sphere, 879–880

geometric, 502–504, 880–881

ionization, 879

linkage, 879

of normal alkanes, 498–499

stereoisomers, 525

structural, 498–499

Isooctane, 70–71, 498, 509

Isopentyl ethanoate, 521

Isosmotic Possessing the same osmotic

pressure, 480

Isotonic Containing the same concentration

of ions, 480

Isotopes Forms of the same element that

differ in the number of neutrons within

the nucleus, 57–58, 901–903

mass of, 59–63

nuclide notations and, 901–903

Janssen, Pierre, 224

Jones Reductor, 856

Joule (J) The SI unit of energy. In terms of

base units, 1 Joule

= 1 kg·m

·s

−2

,22t,

176, 179

Joule, James Prescott, 176

Jupiter

gravitational force on, 398

moons of, 459, 461

Karl Fischer titration, 142

Kelvin (K) The SI base unit of temperature,

17t, 18–19

Kelvin, Lord, 19, 409

Kelvin scale, 19, 21, 409

Kerosene, 508t

Ketones Compounds that have two carbon

atoms bonded to a carbonyl carbon

atom, 512t, 519

Kevlar, 566t, 567

KHP buffer system, 772–773

Kilocalorie (kcal) Unit of energy equal to

1000 calories and to 1 Calorie (note

capital C), 180

Kilogram (kg) The SI base unit of mass,

17–18

Kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m

) The

derived SI unit for density,22

Kilopascals, 398

Kinetic energy The energy things possess as

a result of their motion, 170–174

calculating, 179

conductivity and, 553

of electron orbit, 220–221

entropy and, 598

temperature and, 408, 409, 422, 423

Kinetic-molecular theory A theory

explaining the relationship between

kinetic energy and gas behavior. This

theory makes possible derivation of the

ideal gas laws, 422–424

collision theory and, 629–630

effusion and diffusion in, 424–427

gas laws and, 422–423

molecular speeds in, 423–425

Knocking The rapid explosion of a gas–air

mixture as it is compressed in an

automobile cylinder before the spark

plug creates the spark that is intended to

cause the mixture to explode, 509

Kodak Research Laboratory, 382

Kolbe, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann, 336

Kraushaar, Silke, 621

Krypton, 58

lasers, 224t

uses of, 274t, 275

Labile The opposite of inert; said of a

compound that exchanges ligands

rapidly, 893

Lactase, 657

Lactate, 600–601, 602–603

Lactate dehydrogenase, 946f

Lactic acid, 95, 738–740

Lactose-intolerant, 592, 657

Lanthanides The ﬁrst set of inner transition

elements. The lanthanides include

elements 58–71, 275–276

Laser An acronym for “light ampliﬁcation by

stimulated emission of radiation,” 224

Lattice energy The amount of energy

released as a solid ionic crystal is formed,

314–316

Lattice enthalpy The amount of energy

required to separate 1 mol of a solid

ionic crystalline compound into its

gaseous ions, 313–315

Lauric acid, 719t

Lavoisier, Antoine, 5, 47, 580

Law of combining volumes Scientiﬁc law

stating that when gases combine, they

do so in small whole-number ratios,

provided that all the gases are at the

same temperature and pressure,

50–51

A70 Index/Glossary

Law of conservation of energy Law stating

that energy is neither created nor

destroyed but is only transferred from

place to place or converted from one

form into another, 171, 178

Law of conservation of mass Scientiﬁc law

stating that the mass of chemicals

present at the start of a chemical

reaction must equal the mass of

chemicals present at the end of the

reaction. Although not strictly true, this

law is correct at the level of accuracy of

all laboratory balances, 47, 49

Law of deﬁnite composition Scientiﬁc law

stating that any particular chemical is

always composed of its components in a

ﬁxed ratio, by mass, 47–49

Law of multiple proportions Scientiﬁc law

stating that when the same elements can

produce more than one compound, the

ratio of the masses of the element that

combine with a ﬁxed mass of another

element corresponds to a small whole

number, 49–50, 68

Lead

in automobile gasoline, 317–318

density of, 23

as radiation shield, 910

speciﬁc heat of, 181t

thermodynamic data for, A11

uses of, 272t

Lead–acid battery, 848t

Lead bromide, dissolution of, 693–694, 695

Lead crystal, 560t

Lead(II) iodide, 804

Lead ions, 69

Lead(II) sulﬁde, 146

Le Bel, Achille, 336

Le Châtelier, Henry Louis, 700

Le Châtelier’s principle If a system at

equilibrium is changed, it responds by

returning toward its original

equilibrium position, 700–705,

737–738, 768–771, 809

Length

conversion factors for, 26

as extensive property, 23

as SI base unit, 17t,18

Leucine, 47f, 940f

Lewis, G. N., 304, 359, 722

Lewis acid Accepts a previously nonbonded

pair of electrons (a lone pair) to form a

coordinate covalent bond, 722–723

Lewis base Donates a previously nonbonded

pair of electrons (a lone pair) to form a

coordinate covalent bond, 722–723, 870

Lewis dot structures A drawing convention

used to determine the arrangement of

atoms in a molecule or ion, 305

bond dissociation energy and, 333

for covalent bonds, 322–323

formal charges and, 324

limitations of, 336, 358

resonance structures and, 327–328

rules for drawing, 322t

Lewis dot symbols A drawing convention

used to determine the number of valence

electrons on an atom or monatomic ion,

304–305, 308–309

Ligand A Lewis base that donates a lone pair

of electrons to a metal center to form a

coordinate covalent bond, 809, 810, 870,

873–875. See also Coordination

complexes

Ligand exchange reactions, 892–893

Ligases, 949

Light

color and, 884–885, 890–891

as electromagnetic radiation, 211

in photographic reactions, 382–383

polarized, and chiral molecules, 525–526

quantization of, 210

solar spectrum, 216, 217f, 224

speed of, 211–212

visible spectrum of, 213, 885f

Limiting reagent The reactant that is

consumed ﬁrst, causing the reaction to

cease despite the fact that the other

reactants remain “in excess.” Also known

as the limiting reactant, 112–115

Linear combination of atomic

orbitals–molecular orbitals

(LCAO–MO) theory An

approximation of molecular orbital

theory wherein atomic orbitals are added

together (both constructively and

destructively) to make molecular

orbitals, 375, 386

Linear geometry, 338f, 339t

Linear molecules, 447

Linkage isomers Isomers that differ in the

point of attachment of a ligand to a

metal, 878, 879, 880t

Lipases, 593

Lipids Biological compounds characterized

by their ability to dissolve in nonpolar

solvents. They include fatty acids, some

vitamins, and the steroid hormones,

957–958

Lipoproteins, 948

Liqueﬁed petroleum gas (LPG), 184

Liquid chromatography, 678

Liquid crystals A transitional phase that

exists between the solid and liquid

phases for some molecules. Typically,

these molecules have long, rigid

structures with strong dipole

moments, 550

Liquids A phase of a substance characterized

by closely held components. The

properties of a liquid include a medium

density, the ability to ﬂow, and the

ability to take the shape of the container

that holds it by ﬁlling from the bottom

up, 10, 107, 443

boiling points of, 455–456

capillary action of, 463–464

intermolecular forces in, 444–451

properties of, 396, 397f, 443

supercritical ﬂuids, 460

surface tension of, 462–463

vapor pressure of, 452–455

viscosity of, 462

Liter (L) A commonly used unit for volume;

equal to 1 dm

,22

Lithium

band gap of, 553t, 554

emission spectrum for, 220f

ionization energy for, 282–283

Lewis dot symbol for, 305

molecular orbitals of, 551–552

reactivity of, 279

reduction potential of, 835

thermodynamic data for, A11

uses of, 270t

Lithium hydride, bond energies in, 360, 361t

Lithium hydroxide, reaction with carbon

dioxide, 113

Lithium–ion battery, 848t, 849

Lithium photo battery, 848t

Lockyer, Norman, 224

Logarithms, A3–A4

London, Fritz, 446

London forces The weakest of the

intermolecular forces of attraction,

characterized by the interaction of

induced dipoles, 446–448, 454

Lone pairs Pairs of electrons that are not

involved in bonding, 322, 328

in coordination complexes, 870–871

in VSEPR model, 337, 340, 341–342

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) A form

of polyethylene with branched-chain

molecules that are shorter than the

unbranched chains found in HDPE, 515

Lowest-energy unoccupied molecular

orbital (LUMO) The least energetic

molecular orbital that contains no

electrons, 378

Lowry, Thomas, 720

Low-spin A coordination complex with the

minimum number of unpaired

electrons, 888

Luminous intensity Brightness, expressed in

the SI unit candela (cd),17t,20

Lyases, 949

Lye, 325

Lyman, Theodore, 218

Lyman series, 218t, 223

Lysine, 940f

Macrostate The macroscopic state of a

system that indicates the properties of

the entire system, 580–585

Macroworld A term used to describe the “big

world” of everyday experience, as

opposed to the “nanoworld” of atoms,

molecules, and ions, whose activities

ultimately determine what happens in

the macroworld,20

“magic numbers,” 917–918

Magnesium

ionization energy for, 285

isotopes of, 903t

Index/Glossary A71

Magnesium (continued)

production of, 857–858

as sacriﬁcial anode, 850

structure of, 544

thermodynamic data for, A11

uses of, 271t

Magnesium carbonate, 784

Magnesium hydroxide

as ionic compound, 307t

precipitation of, 147

Magnesium oxide, formula for, 69

Magnesium sulfate, reaction with barium

hydroxide, 147

Magnetic attraction, 169

Magnetic moment (µ) The strength of the

paramagnetism of a compound. Can be

used to determine the number of

unpaired electrons, 891

Magnetic quantum number The quantum

number, m

, that describes the

orientation of the orbital; m

can be any

whole-number value from −1 to +1.

Also known as the orbital angular

momentum quantum number, 235, 243t

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),

242–243, 540, 561–563

Magnetism, 379–380, 873, 891–892

Magnetite, 704

Main groups Groups IA through VIIIA of

the periodic table. Groups IB through

VIIIB are not main groups, 66, 269

Malleable Capable of being shaped, 552, 556

Mallory, George Leigh, 582

Manganese

complexes, 891–892

in steel, 266, 267

thermodynamic data for, A11

Mantle, Earth’s, 292f, 293

Margarine, 872

Mars

gravitational force on, 398

meteorite from, 46

Marsden, Ernest, 53

Mass A measure of the amount of matter in a

body, determined by measuring its

inertia (resistance to changes in its state

of motion) and expressed in the SI base

unit kilogram, 17–18

atomic, 59–63

balancing in equations, 107–108

binding energy and, 915–917

conversion factors for, 26

as extensive property, 23

kinetic energy and, 170

law of conservation of, 47, 49

molar, 92

molecular, 87–88

rest, 231

as SI base unit, 17–18

Mass-action expression The ratio of product

to reactant concentrations raised to the

power of their stoichiometric coefﬁcients.

This expression relates the equilibrium

concentrations to the equilibrium

constant. It is also known as the

equilibrium expression, 672–675,

678, 706

in acid–base reactions, 725

for heterogeneous equilibrium, 682

pressure-based, 686

for titrations, 684–685

Mass defect The loss in mass that occurs

when a nucleus is formed from its

protons and neutrons, 915–916

Mass-energy equivalence, 47

Mass number (A) The total number of

protons and neutrons in the nucleus of

an atom, 57, 58

in nuclear equations, 904

Mass percent The percent of a component

by mass. Mass percent =

 100%,

97–99, 135

Mass spectrometer An instrument used to

measure the masses and abundances of

isotopes, molecules, and fragments of

molecules, 59–63, 100

Mass spectrum The output of a mass

spectrometer, in the form of a chart

listing the abundance and masses of the

isotopes, molecules, and fragments of

molecules present,60

Materials science, 540–573

ceramics, 557–563

composite material, 565, 568

future applications, 35, 571–573

metals, 551–557

plastics, 563–568

structure of crystals and, 540–550

thin ﬁlms, 568–571

Mathematical operators, A1–A6

exponential notations, A1–A3

graphing, A6

logarithms, A3–A4

quadratic equation, A5

Matter Anything that has a mass and

occupies space,4

classiﬁcations of, 8–10

common states of, 10

early explanations of, 46–49

examples of, 4–5

Maximum contaminant level (MCL) The

highest acceptable level of a contaminant

in a particular solution, according to

the Environmental Protection

Agency, 470

Measurement, 16–34

accuracy and precision in, 29–31

base units, 17–20

conversions and dimensional analysis,

25–28

derived units, 21–23

of gas pressure, 397–401

International System (SI), 17–21

mathematical operators, A1–A6

rounding off, 33

signiﬁcant ﬁgures, 31–33

two major systems, 16

uncertainty in, 28–29, A7–A9

total mass component

total mass whole substance

Mechanisms The series of steps taken by the

components of a reaction as they

progress from reactants to products,

647–654

activation energy and, 651–654

catalysts, 654–658

elementary steps, 648–649

intermediates, 650

Mechlorethamine, 962

Medicine, 303

antibiotics, 961–962

buffers in, 784–786

calcium channel blockers, 331

cancer treatment, 528–530, 876, 901,

912, 962

cardiac deﬁbrillator, 568

ceramic bone replacement, 557

future applications, 34

genetic disease, 964

heart–lung machines, 3, 28

hormones, 963

intravenous solutions, 480, 540

major causes of disease/illness, 961

materials science and, 540

modern drug discovery, 527–530

neurotransmitters, 963

nuclear, 901, 924–927

pain control, 14–15, 335

See also Chemistry of life

Meitner, Lise, 920

Melting point The temperature of the phase

transition as a compound changes from

a solid to liquid,6,8,456

Mendeleev, Dmitri, 264–265, 410–411

Meningoencephalitis, 934

Meniscus The concave or convex shape

assumed by the surface of a liquid as it

interacts with its container, 463–464

Mercury, 464

amalgams, 557

in environment, 876–877

thermodynamic data for, A11

Messenger RNA (mRNA) A short-lived

single strand of ribonucleic acid that

carries the information from a gene to

the ribosomes where a protein is

constructed, 942–943

Metabolism The biochemical reactions

inside living cells, 595, 958–959

Metabolite A product of each step in a

biochemical pathway, 958

Metal–chelate complexes, 810–811

Metal–chloride battery, 848t

Metal complexes. See Coordination

complexes

Metal hydroxides, 757

Metallic bond A bond in which metal

cations are spaced throughout a sea of

mobile electrons, 304

Metallic radius Half the distance between

the nuclei of the atoms within the solid

structure of a metal, 280

Metalloids A small number of elements,

found at the boundary between metals

and nonmetals in the periodic table, that

A72 Index/Glossary

have properties intermediate between

those of metals and nonmetals. Also

known as semimetals, 65, 268–269

Metalloproteins, 948, 949

Metal recovery Recycling of metals from

waste streams by complexation with

chelating agents, 807

Metals The largest collection of elements in

the periodic table. Metals exhibit such

characteristic properties as ability to

conduct electricity, shiny appearance,

and malleability, 64, 265, 551–557

alloys, 556

amalgams, 557

band theory of, 551–553

compared with ceramics, 559t

conductivity of, 553–555, 561–562

corrosion of, 152, 291–292, 850

crystal lattice in, 543–545

density of, 25

diversity of steel, 267

emission spectra for, 219, 220f

heavy metals, 145–146, 266, 280

in ionic compounds, 68–69

oxidation numbers for, 155t, 827, 828f

properties and uses of, 64, 65f, 265–267,

269f, 541t, 552–555

reactions with acids, 723

reactivity series of, 291–292, 849–850

spontaneous oxidation of, 586

Metastable state An energetically unstable

arrangement of protons and neutrons in

a nucleus after a neutron has become a

proton, 906

Meter (m) The SI base unit of length,17t,18

Meters per second, 22t

Methadone, 747t

Methane

boiling point of, 445

bond angles in, 357

combustion of, 334, 358t, 622

enthalpy of formation of, 193–194

as greenhouse gas, 431

hybrid orbitals in, 364–365

intermolecular forces in, 444–445

molecular geometry of, 339

molecular speed for, 424, 425

oxidation numbers for, 154

pyrolysis of, 420

sigma bonds in, 369–370

sources of, 193

structure of, 444, 496–497

in substitution reactions, 510

valence bond model of, 362, 363f

Methanol, 142, 517

boiling-point elevation of, 476t

Lewis dot structure for, 323–324

oxidation of, 517

properties of, 323

reaction with permanganate, 840

structure of, 518t

vapor pressure of, 453

Methionine, 940f, 943

Method of graphical analysis A method of

determining the rate law for a reaction

where the rate of a reaction is plotted

versus time. Also known as the method

of integrated rate laws, 644–645

Method of initial rates A method of

determining the rate law for a reaction

where the initial rates of different trials

of a reaction are compared, 641–643

Methoxychlor, 626–627, 647

Methyl acetate, 512t

2-Methylbutane, 498f

Methylcyclopropane, 503

Methylene group The OCH

O group, 497

Methyl ethyl ketone, 512t

3-Methylheptane, 499–500

Methylhydrazine, reaction with dinitrogen

tetroxide, 195–196

Methyl methanoate, 520

2-Methylpentane, 498f

2-Methyl-2-propanol, 517, 518t, 519

2-Methyl-1-propene, 503

Methyl salicylate, 521

Methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE), 524

Metric system, 16. See also Measurement

Meyer, Julius Lothar, 264

Microstate The state of the individual

components within a system, 581–585

Microwaves, 213

Milliliter (mL) One thousandth of a liter,22

Miscible Mixable. Two solvents that are

miscible dissolve in each other

completely, 466

Mixture A sample containing two or more

substances, 8–9

mm Hg A unit used to measure pressure.

760 mm Hg represents the height of a

column of mercury that can be

supported by 1 atm pressure, 399

Mobile phase In chromatography, the phase

the moves, 678

Modiﬁed atmosphere packaging (MAP)

The replacement of the air within food

packaging with gases in order to prolong

the shelf life of the food, 401, 412

Molality (m) A concentration measure

deﬁned as moles of solute per kilogram of

solvent, 468, 469

Molar (M) The “shorthand” method of

describing molarity; as in “that is a 3

molar HCl solution,” 132

Molar heat capacity The heat capacity of

one mole of a substance, 182

Molarity (M) A speciﬁc concentration term

that reﬂects the moles of solute dissolved

per liter of total solution, 131–132, 468

calculations involving, 132–135, 137, 469

osmotic pressure and, 479

Molar mass The total mass of all the atoms

present in the formula of a molecule, in

atomic mass units (amu) or in grams per

mole,92

boiling point and, 446–448

of gases, 418–419, 424–426

Molar solubility The total number of moles

of solute that dissolve per liter of

solution, 805

Mole (mol) The SI base unit of amount of

substance. One mole of entities, such

as 1 mole of atoms, is approximately

equal to 6.02214 × 10

entities,

20, 92

calculating, in solution, 133–134

converting molecules and grams, 92–97

as SI base unit, 17t,20

whole-number ratios and, 100

Molecular compounds

naming binary, 72–73

properties of, 343–346

Molecular equation A chemical equation

that shows complete molecules and

compounds, 144–145

Molecular formula A chemical formula

indicating the actual number of each

type of atom present in one molecule of a

compound, 70–71, 99–102

Molecular geometry The geometry of the

atoms in a molecule or ion. The

molecular geometry comes from the

electron-group geometry but considers

the lone pairs “invisible,” 337

of coordination complexes, 876–878

examples of, 337–341

of hybridized orbitals, 368

Molecular ions Ions composed of two or

more atoms attached together. Also

known as polyatomic ions, 75–76

Molecularity A description of the number

of molecules that must collide in

the rate-determining step of a

reaction, 648

Molecular mass The mass of one molecule,

expressed in atomic mass units (amu) or

the mass of one mole of molecules in

grams per mole, 87–88

Molecular models Models used by chemists

to explain the three-dimensional nature

of molecules. Although many can be

made from plastic or wood, these models

can also be constructed using computers,

303–304

in chemist’s toolbox, 386

combining models, 384

ﬂat models, 336

hybridization, 363–374

information yielded from, 374

Lewis dot structures, 305, 322–323

molecular orbital theory, 374–381

valence bond theory, 358–363

VSEPR model, 337–343

Molecular orbitals Electron orbitals that

are appropriate for describing

bonding between atoms in a

molecule, 244

in crystal ﬁeld theory, 886–889

hybrid orbitals, 363–374

key features in formation of, 375–377

magnetism and, 379–380

of metals, 551–553

as replacing atomic orbitals, 376, 377

shapes of, 377

valence bond model of, 359–362

Index/Glossary A73

Molecular orbital (MO) diagram A diagram

used to illustrate the different molecular

orbitals available on a molecule, 377–381

Molecular orbital (MO) theory A theory

that mathematically describes the

orbitals on a molecule by treating each

electron as a wave instead of as a

particle, 374–381, 386

bonding and antibonding orbitals,

375, 376

bond order in, 377

conjugated π systems, 374, 381, 383

deﬁnition of, 375–377

delocalized systems, 384–385

and power of photons, 380–381

Molecular solids Solids made up of

molecules that are held together by

intermolecular forces, 541t, 542

Molecular speeds, 423–425

Molecules Neutral compounds containing

two or more atoms attached together,

5, 70–71

chiral, 525–527

polar vs. nonpolar, 346

shape of, 377

Mole fraction A concentration measure

deﬁned as moles of solute per total moles

of solution, 468, 469

Molina, Mario, 429, 431

Molybdenum, 58

atomic mass of, 60

in steel, 266, 267

Molybdenum cow, 925–926

Monobasic salt A salt that can accept one

hydrogen ion, 748

Monodentate ligand A ligand that makes

one coordinate covalent bond to a metal

ion, 810, 873t

Monomer One of the small chemical units

that combine with other monomers to

form polymers, 515–516

Monoprotic Can produce one mol of H

when it dissociates, 151

Monoprotic acid An acid that contains one

acidic proton, 736, 742–743

Monosaccharide A small carbohydrate

monomer. Typically contains between

three and nine carbon atoms, 955f, 956

Morphine, 15, 335, 342–343, 747t

Mortar, 558

Most probable speed The most likely speed

of a molecule from among a group of

molecules, 424

Mulliken, Robert S., 375

Mulliken electronegativity scale, 320

Multielectron orbitals, 244–245

Multiple bonds, 325–327, 369–370

Multiplicity The number of microstates

within a system, 581–585, 587–588

Myoglobin (Mb) A biochemical compound

responsible for storing and releasing

oxygen in a living organism, 669–673

reaction with oxygen, 669–673, 689–690,

697–698, 701–702

structure of, 669f, 946, 947f

NAD

(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide),

600–601

Naming compounds. See Chemical

nomenclature

Nanometers, 211

Nanotechnology Technology that depends

on manipulating materials and their

chemistry at the very small, “nanoscale”

level of individual particles or assemblies

of small numbers of particles,36

Nanotube, 494f

Nanoworld A term used to describe the

“world of the very small” at the level of

individual atoms, molecules, and ions, as

opposed to the “macroworld” of everyday

experience, 20–21

Naphthalene, 478t, 505f

Naphthenes, 495t

National Cancer Institute, 528

National Telecommunications and

Information Administration

(NTIA), 214

Natrolite, 310f

Natural gas A complex mixture of gases

extracted from the Earth. The major

component in many cases is methane,

197, 198, 443–444, 497, 508t

Natural logarithms, A4

Nd:YAG lasers, 224t

Neon

electron conﬁguration of, 246, 305

Lewis dot symbol for, 305

light emissions from, 224

properties of, 65

thermodynamic data for, A11

uses of, 274t, 275

Neoprene, 420

Nernst, Walther Hermann, 852

Nernst equation The equation used to

determine the cell potential at

nonstandard conditions, 851–857

Net ionic equation A complete ionic

equation written without the spectator

ions, 144–145, 146

Network covalent solids, 541t

Neurotransmitters, 963

Neutralization reactions, 148. See also

Acid-base entries

Neutral pH A pH of 7.0 in aqueous solution

at 24°C, 734

Neutrino A subatomic particle that is

produced in beta-plus decay and that has

no charge, has essentially no mass, and

interacts only rarely with matter, 905

Neutrons One of the subatomic particles of

which atoms are composed, carrying no

electrical charge and found in the

nucleus, 54–57

beta decay of, 904–905

fast, penetration capability of, 910f

Newlands, John, 263–264

Newton (N) The basic SI unit of force.

1 N = 1 kg·m·s

−2

,22t, 397–398

Niacin, 950t

NiChrome, 561–562

Nickel

complexes, 892

sources and uses of, 265t

in steel, 266, 267

thermodynamic data for, A11

Nickel–cadmium battery, 846, 848t

Nickel(II) hydroxide, 147

Nickel–metal hydride battery, 848

Nicotine, 719t, 743, 746

Niépce, Joseph Nicéphore, 382

Nifedipine, 331, 335

Niobium, 267

Nitric acid

acid deposition and, 758

ionization of, 128, 719, 724–727

reaction with copper, 833, 834f, 837–838,

842–843, 845–846, 855

as strong acid, 724, 725

uses of, 718t, 719t

Nitric anhydride, 50

Nitric oxide, 49–50, 757

Nitriles, 513t

Nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA), 811t

Nitrogen

electron conﬁguration of, 246, 247

electronegativity of, 289

Lewis dot symbol for, 305

in ligands, 874

oxidation state of, 831–833

properties of, 5, 272

reactions with oxygen, 49–50

reaction with hydrogen, 156

sources and uses of, 97–98, 268t, 272t

thermodynamic data for, A11

Nitrogen-14, 915

Nitrogen cycle The path that nitrogen

follows through its different oxidation

states on Earth, 831

Nitrogen dioxide, 757–758, 832–833

Nitrogen gas

in air bags, 419–420

formation of, 704

uses of, 395t, 401

Nitrogen molecule

boiling point of, 445

diamagnetism of, 380

MO diagram for, 378–379

triple bonds in, 326

Nitrogenous organic bases The portion of a

nucleotide where hydrogen bonding

holds the strands of DNA together in a

duplex, 935

Nitrogen oxide

catalysis of, 656

oxidation states for, 832–833

ozone depletion and, 629, 640, 653

reaction rates for, 628–629, 641–643,

649–650

Nitrogen trichloride, 72

Noble gases The unreactive elements in the

rightmost group of the periodic table

(Group VIIIA). Also known as inert

gases, 65, 66t, 274–275

commercial uses of, 274t

compounds of, 329–330

A74 Index/Glossary

discovery of, 224

periodic properties of, 279–280, 287

reactivity and, 278

stable electron conﬁgurations of, 275, 306

Nodal planes Flat, imaginary planes passing

through bonded atoms where an orbital

does not exist, 370

Node A point in the wave function where the

amplitude is always zero, 233, 234,

238–240

Nonane, 497t

Nonbonding molecular orbital A

molecular orbital that is not involved in

bonding or antibonding, 551

Nonelectrolyte A compound that doesn’t

dissociate into ions when it dissolves,

129–131

Nonmetals A collection of elements on the

right-hand side of the periodic table that

shares certain characteristics that are in

contrast to those of the metals, including

being gases or dull, brittle solids at room

temperature, 65, 268, 269f

in ionic compounds, 68–69

oxidation states for, 827

Nonpolar covalent bond A covalent bond

with a very small difference in

electronegativity between the bonded

atoms. The result is minimal or no

charge separation in the bond,

320–321

Nonpolar molecules A molecule in which

there is no net charge separation and no

net dipole moment, 345, 346

boiling points of, 446–448

Nonspontaneous process A process that

occurs only with continuous outside

intervention, 585–586

Normal alkanes Alkanes that have no

branched chains or rings of carbon

atoms, 496–497

Normal boiling point The temperature at

which a liquid boils when the pressure is

1 atm, 455

n-type semiconductor A semiconductor

that contains electrons (negative

charges) in the conduction band, 554

Nuclear charge

ion size and, 310–312

shielding and, 244–245

Nuclear chemistry, 901–928

chain reactions, 923–924

vs. chemical reactions, 903

common radioactive nuclei, A19

ﬁssion, 917, 920–924

fusion, 916

health effects of radiation exposure, 901,

911–912

interaction of radiation with matter,

909–912

ionizing radiation, 910–912

isotopes, 901–903

kinetics of radioactive decay, 912–915

mass and binding energy in, 915–917

medical use of radioisotopes, 924–927

nuclear reactors, 921–922

nuclear stability, 917–919

nuclide notations, 901–903

positron emission tomography, 926–927

structure of atom and, 53–55

types of radioactive decay, 54–55, 904–909

units for measuring radiation, 911