Kelter P., Mosher M., Scott A. Chemistry. The Practical Science
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A8 Appendixes
t at the 90% confidence level for three measurements is 2.920 (see Table A2.1).
Therefore, the confidence interval can be determined to be
C.I. =¯x ±
ts
√
n
= 2.31 ±
2.920 ×0.48
√
3
= 2.31 ±0.82
The researcher would report the result of the experiment as 2.31 ± 0.82. This
means that in 90% of the cases, the accepted value should lie somewhere between
3.13 and 1.49. In 10% of the cases, the accepted value will lie outside these limits.
Occasionally, a set of measurements are collected for an experiment and one
of the values appears to be erroneous. For example, measuring the distance from
one town to another could give these data:
21.5 mi, 21.2 mi, 21.6 mi, 21.5 mi, 22.8 mi
Examination of the data leads us to believe that the last measurement is probably
not a good measurement. But can we ignore it? No, we can’t just throw it away
without mathematically showing that it is an outlier.
This is accomplished by using a method known as the Q-test. In this method,
a value of Q is calculated and compared to a Q value from a table based on our
confidence level (see Table A2.2). Typically, the 90% confidence level is chosen
Critical Values for the Rejection Quotient Q
Number of
Measurements 90% Confidence 95% Confidence 99% Confidence
3 0.941 0.970 0.994
4 0.765 0.829 0.926
5 0.642 0.710 0.821
6 0.560 0.625 0.740
7 0.507 0.568 0.680
8 0.468 0.526 0.634
9 0.437 0.493 0.598
10 0.412 0.466 0.568
TABLE A2.2
Values of t for Various Levels of Probability
Number of
Measurements 50% 90% 95% 99% 99.9%
2 1.000 6.314 12.706 63.657 636.619
3 0.816 2.920 4.303 9.925 31.98
4 0.765 2.353 3.182 5.841 12.924
5 0.741 2.132 2.776 4.604 8.610
6 0.727 2.015 2.571 4.032 6.869
7 0.718 1.943 2.447 3.707 5.959
8 0.711 1.895 2.365 3.500 5.408
9 0.706 1.860 2.306 3.355 5.041
10 0.703 1.833 2.262 3.250 4.781
TABLE A2.1
(giving us only a 10% chance of being wrong). The rejection quotient, Q,is
determined by solving
Q =
d
r
=
gap
range
where the gap is the difference between the outlier and the next closest mea-
surement, and the range is the difference between the largest and smallest
measurements.
For our hypothetical set of distances, we could determine the value of Q and
compare it to the tabulated value of Q for five measurements (0.642). If our cal-
culation of Q is larger than this, we can safely discard the point.
Q =
d
r
=
(22.8 −21.6)
(22.8 −21.2)
=
1.2
1.6
= 0.75
Our calculation is larger than the value of Q from the table (Q at 90% is 0.642),
and we have demonstrated the point to be an outlier. However, if the calculated Q
is only slightly larger than the table value, it may be statistically safer not to reject
the point.
Appendix 3 Thermodynamic Data for Selected Compounds at 298 K A9
Appendix 3
Thermodynamic Data for Selected Compounds at 298 K
The signs of the values for ∆
f
H° and ∆
f
G° are explicitly shown. The sign on all S° values
is positive unless otherwise noted. All values are rounded to the nearest whole number.
∆
f
H° ∆
f
G° S°
(kJ·mol
−1
) (kJ·mol
−1
) (J·K
−1
·mol
−1
)
Aluminum
Al(s)0028
Al(l) +11 +740
Al(g) +326 +286 164
Al
2
O
3
(s) −1676 −1582 51
Al(OH)
3
(s) −1277
AlCl
3
(s) −704 –629 111
Antimony
Sb(s)0046
SbH
3
(g) +145 +148 233
Argon
Ar(g) 0 0 155
Arsenic
As(s)0035
As(g) +302 −261 174
As
4
(g) +144 +92 314
AsH
3
(g) +66 +69 223
Barium
Ba(s)0067
Ba(g) +180 +146 170
BaO(s) −582 −552 70
BaCl
2
(s) −859 −810 124
BaCO
3
(s) −1219 −1139 112
Ba(OH)
2
(s) −946
BaSO
4
(s) −1465 −1353 132
Beryllium
Be(s)0010
Be(g) +324 +287 136
BeO(s) −599 −569 14
Be(OH)
2
(s) −904 −815 47
Bismuth
Bi(s)0057
Bi(g) +207 +168 187
Bromine
Br
2
(l) 0 0 152
Br
2
(g) +31 +3 245
Br
2
(aq) −3 +4 130
Br(g) +112 +82 175
Br
−
(aq) −121 −104 82
HBr(g) −36 −53 199
Cadmium
Cd(s)0052
Cd(g) +112 +77 168
CdO(s) −258 −228 55
CdCO
3
(s) −751 −669 92
Cd(OH)
2
(s) −561 −474 96
∆
f
H° ∆
f
G° S°
(kJ·mol
−1
) (kJ·mol
−1
) (J·K
−1
·mol
−1
)
(Continued)
CdS(s) −162 −156 65
CdSO
4
(s) −953 −823 123
Calcium
Ca(s)0041
Ca(g) +178 +144 155
CaC
2
(s) −63 −68 70
CaO(s) −635 −604 40
CaCO
3
(s) −1207 −1129 93
CaF
2
(s) −1220 −1167 69
CaCl
2
(s) −796 −748 105
CaBr
2
(s) −683 −664 130
Ca(OH)
2
(s) −987 −899 83
Ca
3
(PO)
4
(s) −4126 −3890 241
CaSO
4
(s) −1433 −1320 107
CaSiO
3
(s) −1630 −1550 84
Carbon
C(s) (graphite) 0 0 6
C(s) (diamond) +2 +32
C(g) +717 +671 158
C
2
(g) +832 +776 119
CO(g) −111 −137 198
CO
2
(g) −394 −394 214
CO
2
(aq) −414 −386 118
H
2
CO
3
(aq) −700 −623 187
CCl
4
(l) −135 −65 216
CH
3
Cl(g) −84 −60 234
CS
2
(l) +90 +65 151
HCN(g) +135 +125 202
HCN(l) +109 +125 113
CH
4
(g) −75 −50 186
C
2
H
2
(g) +227 +209 201
C
2
H
4
(g) +52 +68 220
C
2
H
6
(g) −85 −33 230
C
3
H
6
(g) +21 +63 267
C
3
H
8
(g) −104 −24 270
C
4
H
8
(g) (1-butene) −0.1 +71 306
C
4
H
10
(g) −126 −17 310
C
5
H
12
(g) −146 −8 348
C
5
H
12
(l) −173 −251 263
C
6
H
6
(l) +49 +124 173
C
6
H
6
(g) +83 +130 269
C
6
H
12
(l) −156 +27 204
C
6
H
14
(l) −199 204
C
7
H
16
(l) (heptane) −224 +1 329
C
8
H
18
(l) (octane) −250 +6 361
C
8
H
18
(l) (iso-octane) −255 328
CH
3
OH(l) −239 −166 127
CH
3
OH(g) −201 −162 240
C
2
H
5
OH(l) −278 −175 161
A10 Appendixes
C
2
H
5
OH(g) −235 −168 283
C
6
H
5
OH(s) (phenol) −165 −51 146
HCOOH(l) (formic acid) −425 −361 129
CH
3
COOH(l) (acetic acid) −484 −389 160
CH
3
COOH(aq) (acetic acid) −486 −396 179
H
2
C
2
O
4
(s) (oxalic acid) −827 115
C
6
H
5
COOH(s) (benzoic acid) −385 −245 168
HCHO(g) (formaldehyde) −109 −103 219
CH
3
CHO(l) (acetaldehyde) −192 −128 160
CH
3
CHO(g) (acetaldehyde) −166 −129 250
CH
3
COCH
3
(l) (acetone) −248 −155 200
C
6
H
12
O
6
(s) (glucose) −1268 −911 212
C
12
H
22
O
11
(s) (sucrose) −2222 −1543 360
Cesium
Cs(s)0085
Cs(g) +76 +49 176
Chlorine
Cl
2
(g) 0 0 223
Cl
2
(aq) −23 7 121
Cl
−
(aq) −167 −131 57
HCl(g) −92 −95 187
Chromium
Cr(s)0024
Cr
2
O
3
(s) −1128 −1047 81
CrO
3
(s) −579 −502 72
Copper
Cu(s)0033
CuCO
3
(s) −595 −518 88
Cu
2
O(s) −170 −148 93
CuO(s) −156 −128 43
Cu(OH)
2
(s) −450 −372 108
CuS(s) −49 −49 67
Fluorine
F
2
(g) 0 0 203
F
−
(aq) −333 −279 −14
HF(g) −271 −273 174
Hydrogen
H
2
(g) 0 0 131
H(g) +217 +203 115
H
+
(aq)000
OH
−
(aq) −230 −157 −11
H
2
O(l) −286 −237 70
H
2
O(g) −242 −229 189
Iodine
I
2
(s) 0 0 116
I
2
(g) +62 +19 261
I
2
(aq) +23 +16 137
I
−
(aq) −55 −52 106
∆
f
H° ∆
f
G° S° ∆
f
H° ∆
f
G° S°
(kJ·mol
−1
) (kJ·mol
−1
) (J·K
−1
·mol
−1
) (kJ·mol
−1
) (kJ·mol
−1
) (J·K
−1
·mol
−1
)
Iron
Fe(s)0027
Fe
3
C(s) +21 +15 108
Fe
0.95
O(s) (wustite) −264 −240 59
FeO −272 −255 61
Fe
3
O
4
(s) (magnetite) −1117 −1013 146
Fe
2
O
3
(s) (hematite) −826 −740 90
FeS(s) −95 −97 67
FeS
2
(s) −178 −166 53
FeSO
4
(s) −929 −825 121
Lead
Pb(s)0065
Pb(g) +195 +162 175
PbO(s, yellow) −217 −188 69
PbO(s,red) −219 −189 66
PbO
2
(s) −277 −217 69
PbS(s) −100 −99 91
PbSO
4
(s) −920 −813 149
Lithium
Li(s)0029
Li(g) +159 +127 139
Magnesium
Mg(s)0033
Mg(g) +148 +113 149
MgO(s) −602 −570 27
MgCO
3
(s) −1096 −1012 65
MgCl
2
(s) −641 −592 90
Mg(OH)
2
(s) −925 −834 64
Mg
3
N
2
(s) −461 −401 89
Manganese
Mn(s)0032
MnO(s) −385 −363 60
Mn
3
O
4
(s) −1387 −1280 149
Mn
2
O
3
(s) −971 −893 110
MnO
2
(s) −521 −466 53
MnO
4
−
(aq) −543 −449 190
Mercury
Hg(l)0076
Hg(g) +61 +32 175
Hg
2
Cl
2
(s) −265 −211 193
HgCl
2
(s) −230 −184 144
HgO(s) −91 −59 70
HgS(s, black) −54 −48 88
Neon
Ne(g) 0 0 146
Nickel
Ni(s)0030
Appendix 3 Thermodynamic Data for Selected Compounds at 298 K
A11
NiCl
2
(s) −316 −272 107
NiO(s) −241 −213 38
Ni(OH)
2
(s) −538 −453 79
NiS(s) −93 −90 53
Nitrogen
N
2
(g) 0 0 192
N(g) +473 +456 153
NH
3
(g) −46 −16 192
NH
3
(aq) −80 −27 111
NH
4
+
(aq) −132 −79 113
HN
3
(l) 264 327 141
HN
3
(g) 294 328 239
NH
4
NO
3
(s) −366 −184 151
NH
4
Cl(s) −314 −203 95
NH
4
ClO
4
(s) −295 −89 186
NH
4
Cl(s) −314 −203 96
HNO
3
(l) −174 −81 156
HNO
3
(aq) −207 −111 146
NH
2
OH(s) −114
NO(g) +90 +87 211
NO
2
(g) +33 +51 240
N
2
O(g) +82 +104 220
N
2
O
4
(g) +9 +98 304
N
2
O
5
(s) −43 +114 178
N
2
O
5
(g) +11 +115 356
N
2
H
4
(l) +51 +149 121
N
2
H
3
CH
3
(l) +54 +180 166
Oxygen
O
2
(g) 0 0 205
O(g) +249 +232 161
O
3
(g) +143 +163 239
Phosphorus
P(s) (white) 0 0 41
P(s) (red) −18 −12 23
P(s) (black) −39 −33 23
P(g) +315 +278 163
P
2
(g) +144 +104 218
P
4
(g) +59 +24 280
PH
3
(g) +5 +13 210
PF
5
(g) −1578 −1509 296
PCl
3
(g) −287 −268 312
PCl
3
(l) −320 −272 217
PCl
5
(g) −375 −305 365
PCl
5
(s) −444
H
3
PO
3
(s) −964
H
3
PO
3
(aq) −965
H
3
PO
4
(s) −1279 −1119 111
H
3
PO
4
(l) −1267
∆
f
H° ∆
f
G° S° ∆
f
H° ∆
f
G° S°
(kJ·mol
−1
) (kJ·mol
−1
) (J·K
−1
·mol
−1
) (kJ·mol
−1
) (kJ·mol
−1
) (J·K
−1
·mol
−1
)
(Continued)
H
3
PO
4
(aq) −1277 −1019 −222
P
4
O
10
(s) −2984 −2697 229
Potassium
K(s)0064
K(g) +89 +61 160
KF(s) −576 −538 67
KCl(s) −437 −409 83
KBr(s) −394 −381 96
KI(s) −328 −325 106
KClO
3
(s) −391 −290 143
KClO
4
(s) −433 −304 151
KOH(s) −425 −379 79
KOH(aq) −481 −440 9
KO
2
(s) −283 −238 117
K
2
O(s) −361 −322 98
K
2
O
2
(s) −496 −430 113
Silicon
Si(s)0019
Si(g) +456 +411 168
SiO
2
(s) +911 −857 42
SiCl
4
(l) −687 −620 240
Silver
Ag(s)0043
Ag(g) +285 +246 173
Ag
+
(aq) +105 +77 73
AgBr(s) −100 −97 107
AgCN(s) +146 +164 84
AgCl(s) −127 −110 96
Ag
2
CrO
4
(s) −712 −622 217
AgI(s) −62 −66 115
Ag
2
O(s) −31 −11 121
AgNO
3
(s) −129 −33 141
Ag
2
S(s) −32 −40 146
Sodium
Na(s)0051
Na(g) +107 +77 153
Na
+
(aq) −240 −262 59
NaH(s) −56 −33 40
NaHCO
3
(s) −948 −852 102
NaCl(s) −411 −384 72
NaBr(s) −361 −349 87
NaI(s) −288 −286 99
NaNO
2
(s) −359
NaNO
3
(aq) −467 −366 116
NaOH(s) −426 −379 64
NaOH(aq) −470 −419 50
Na
2
CO
3
(s) −1131 −1048 136
A12 Appendixes
Na
2
O(s) −416 −377 73
Na
2
O
2
(s) −515 −451 95
Sulfur
S(s)0032
S(g) +279 +238 168
S
2−
(aq) +42 +86 +22
S
2
(g) +128 +79 228
S
8
(s) +102 +50 431
H
2
S(g) −21 −34 206
H
2
S(aq) −40 −28 121
SF
6
(g) −1209 −1105 292
SO
2
(g) −297 −300 248
SO
3
(g) −396 −371 257
SO
4
2−
(aq) −909 −745 20
H
2
SO
4
(l) −814 −690 157
H
2
SO
4
(aq) −909 −745 20
Tin
Sn(s) (white) 0 0 52
Sn(s) (grey) −2 +0.1 44
Sn(g) +302 +267 168
SnO(s) −286 −257 57
SnO
2
(s) −581 −520 52
Sn(OH)
2
(s) −561 −492 155
Titanium
TiCl
4
(g) −763 −727 355
TiO
2
(s) −945 −890 50
Uranium
U(s)0050
UF
6
(s) −2137 −2008 228
UF
6
(g) −2113 −2029 380
UO
2
(s) −1084 −1029 78
UO
3
(s) −1230 −1150 99
U
3
O
8
(s) −3575 −3393 282
Xenon
Xe(g) 0 0 170
XeF
2
(g) −108 −48 254
XeF
4
(s) −251 −121 146
XeF
6
(g) −294
XeO
3
(s) 402
Zinc
Zn(s)0042
Zn(g) +131 +95 161
ZnO(s) −348 −318 44
Zn(OH)
2
(s) −642
ZnS(s) (wurtzite) −193
ZnS(s) (zinc blende) −206 −201 58
ZnSO
4
(s) −983 −874 120
∆
f
H° ∆
f
G° S° ∆
f
H° ∆
f
G° S°
(kJ·mol
−1
) (kJ·mol
−1
) (J·K
−1
·mol
−1
) (kJ·mol
−1
) (kJ·mol
−1
) (J·K
−1
·mol
−1
)
Appendix 5 Selected Equilibrium Constants at 298 K A13
Appendix 4
Colligative Property Constants for Selected Compounds
K
f
(°C/m) T
f
(°C) K
b
(°C/m) T
b
(°C)
Acetic acid 3.9 16.2 3.1 117.9
Acetone 2.4 −94.8 1.7 56.5
Benzene 5.1 5.5 2.6 80.1
Camphor 40 175 5.6 204
Carbon disulfide 3.8 −112 2.4 46
Carbon tetrachloride 30 −23 5.0 76.7
Chloroform 4.7 −63.5 3.6 61.2
Cyclohexane 20.0 6.5 2.8 80.7
Cyclohexanol 40.8 20 3.5 161
Diethyl ether 1.8 −116.3 2.0 34.6
1,4-Dioxane 4.6 11.8 3.3 101.5
Ethanol 2.0 −117.3 1.2 78.5
Ethylene glycol 3.1 −13 2.3 197.3
Formic acid 2.8 8.4 2.4 100
Methanol −98 0.80 64.7
Naphthalene 6.9 80 5.8 217.7
Phenol 7.4 43 3.0 182
Toluene 3.6 −94.5 3.3 110.7
Water 1.86 0.0 0.51 100.0
Appendix 5
Selected Equilibrium Constants at 298 K
Acid Ionization Constants (K
a
) at 298 K
All values except those of the strong acids (HI, HBr, HCl, H
2
SO
4
,HClO
4
, HNO
3
, and H
3
O
+
)
are reported to two significant figures.
Name Formula K
a
Name Formula K
a
Acetic acid CH
3
COOH 1.8 × 10
−5
Benzoic acid C
6
H
5
COOH 6.5 × 10
−5
Boric acid (K
a
1
)H
3
BO
3
5.8 × 10
−10
Butanoic acid CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
COOH 1.5 × 10
−5
Chlorous acid HClO
2
1.2 × 10
−2
Formic acid HCOOH 1.8 × 10
−4
Hydroazoic acid HN
3
2.2 × 10
−5
Hydrobromic acid HBr 1 × 10
9
Hydrochloric acid HCl 1 × 10
7
Hydrofluoric acid HF 7.2 × 10
−4
Hydrogen cyanide HCN 6.2 × 10
−10
Hydrogen peroxide H
2
O
2
2.4 × 10
−12
Hydroiodic acid HI 1 × 10
11
TABLE A5.1
Hydronium ion H
3
O
+
1
Hypobromous acid HBrO 2.8 × 10
−9
Hypochlorous acid HClO 3.5 × 10
−8
Hypoiodous acid HIO 2.0 × 10
−11
Iodic acid HIO
3
1.7 × 10
−1
Lactic acid CH
3
CH(OH)COOH 1.3 ×10
−4
Nitric acid HNO
3
1 × 10
1
Nitrous acid HNO
2
7.0 × 10
−4
Perchloric acid HClO
4
4 × 10
1
Phenol C
6
H
5
OH 1.6 × 10
−10
Propanic acid CH
3
CH
2
COOH 1.3 × 10
−5
Sulfuric acid (K
a
1
)H
2
SO
4
1 × 10
2
Thiocyanic acid HSCN 1.3 × 10
−1
A14 Appendixes
Base Ionization Constants (K
b
) at 298 K
All values are reported to two significant figures.
Name Formula K
b
Ammonia NH
3
1.8 × 10
−5
Aniline C
6
H
5
NH
2
3.8 × 10
−8
Diethylamine (CH
3
CH
2
)
2
NH 7.1 × 10
−4
Dimethylamine (CH
3
)
2
NH 5.9 × 10
−4
Ethylamine CH
3
CH
2
NH
2
6.4 × 10
−4
Hydrazine H
2
NNH
2
1.3 × 10
−6
Hydroxylamine HONH
2
1.1 × 10
−8
Methylamine CH
3
NH
2
5.9 × 10
−4
Pyridine C
5
H
5
N 1.7 × 10
−9
Triethylamine (CH
3
CH
2
)
3
N 5.6 × 10
−4
Trimethylamine (CH
3
)
3
N 6.4 × 10
−5
TABLE A5.2
Polyprotic Acid Ionization Constants (K
a1
, K
a2
,andK
a3
) at 298 K
The formula of the acid (HA) and that of its conjugate base (A
−
) are indicated.
Acid HA A
−
K
a
Arsenic acid H
3
AsO
4
H
2
AsO
4
−
5.0 × 10
−3
dihydrogen arsenate H
2
AsO
4
−
HAsO
4
2−
8.0 × 10
−8
hydrogen arsenate HAsO
4
2−
AsO
4
3−
6.0 × 10
−10
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) H
2
C
6
H
6
O
6
HC
6
H
6
O
6
−
7.9 × 10
−5
ascorbate HC
6
H
6
O
6
−
C
6
H
6
O
6
2−
1.6 × 10
−12
Carbonic acid H
2
CO
3
HCO
3
−
4.3 × 10
−7
hydrogen carbonate HCO
3
−
CO
3
2−
5.6 × 10
−11
Citric acid H
3
C
6
H
5
O
7
H
2
C
6
H
5
O
7
−
8.4 × 10
−4
dihydrogen citrate H
2
C
6
H
5
O
7
−
HC
6
H
5
O
7
2−
1.8 × 10
−5
hydrogen citrate HC
6
H
5
O
7
2−
C
6
H
5
O
7
3−
4.0 × 10
−6
Hydrogen sulfide H
2
SHS
−
1.0 × 10
−7
hydrogen sulfide ion HS
−
S
2−
1.0 × 10
−15
Oxalic acid H
2
C
2
O
4
HC
2
O
4
−
6.5 × 10
−2
hydrogen oxalate HC
2
O
4
−
C
2
O
4
2−
6.1 × 10
−5
Phosphoric acid H
3
PO
4
H
2
PO
4
−
7.4 × 10
−3
dihydrogen phosphate H
2
PO
4
−
HPO
4
2−
6.2 × 10
−8
hydrogen phosphate HPO
4
2−
PO
4
3−
4.8 × 10
−13
Sulfuric acid H
2
SO
4
HSO
4
−
1.0 × 10
2
hydrogen sulfate HSO
4
−
SO
4
2−
1.0 × 10
−2
Sulfurous acid H
2
SO
3
HSO
3
−
1.5 × 10
−2
hydrogen sulfite HSO
3
−
SO
3
2−
1.0 × 10
−7
TABLE A5.3
Appendix 5 Selected Equilibrium Constants at 298 K A15
Solubility Product Constants (K
sp
) at 298 K
Name Formula K
sp
Name Formula K
sp
TABLE A5.4
Aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)
3
2.0 × 10
−32
Aluminium phosphate AlPO
4
9.8 × 10
−21
Barium carbonate BaCO
3
1.6 × 10
−9
Barium chromate BaCrO
4
8.5 × 10
−10
Barium fluoride BaF
2
2.4 × 10
−5
Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)
2
5.0 × 10
−4
Barium iodate Ba(IO
3
)
2
4.0 × 10
−9
Barium molybdate BaMoO
4
3.5 × 10
−8
Barium phosphate Ba
3
(PO
4
)
2
6.0 × 10
−39
Barium selenate BaSeO
4
3.4 × 10
−8
Barium sulfate BaSO
4
1.5 × 10
−9
Barium sulfite BaSO
3
5.0 × 10
−10
Beryllium hydroxide Be(OH)
2
6.9 × 10
−22
Bismuth arsenate BiAsO
4
4.4 × 10
−10
Bismuth iodide BiI 7.7 × 10
−19
Cadmium carbonate CdCO
3
5.2 × 10
−12
Cadmium fluoride CdF
2
6.4 × 10
−3
Cadmium hydroxide Cd(OH)
2
2.5 × 10
−14
Cadmium oxalate CdC
2
O
4
1.4 × 10
−8
Cadmium phosphate Cd
3
(PO
4
)
2
2.5 × 10
−33
Cadmium sulfide CdS 1.0 × 10
−28
Calcium carbonate CaCO
3
8.7 × 10
−9
Calcium fluoride CaF
2
4.0 × 10
−11
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)
2
1.3 × 10
−6
Calcium iodate Ca(IO
3
)
2
7.1 × 10
−7
Calcium oxalate CaC
2
O
4
2.3 × 10
−9
Calcium phosphate Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
1.3 × 10
−32
Calcium sulfate CaSO
4
6.1 × 10
−5
Cesium perchlorate CsClO
4
4.0 × 10
−3
Cesium periodate CsIO
4
5.2 × 10
−6
Chromium(III) hydroxide Cr(OH)
3
6.7 × 10
−31
Cobalt(II) arsenate Co
3
(AsO
4
)
2
6.8 × 10
−29
Cobalt(II) carbonate CoCO
3
1.0 × 10
−10
Cobalt(II) hydroxide Co(OH)
2
2.5 × 10
−16
Cobalt(II) phosphate Co
3
(PO
4
)
2
2.1 × 10
−35
Cobalt(II) sulfide CoS 5.0 × 10
−22
Cobalt(III) hydroxide Co(OH)
3
2.5 × 10
−43
Copper(I) bromide CuBr 6.3 × 10
−9
Copper(I) chloride CuCl 1.7 × 10
−7
Copper(I) cyanide CuCN 3.5 × 10
−20
Copper(I) oxide Cu
2
O 2.0 × 10
−15
Copper(I) iodide CuI 1.3 × 10
−12
Copper(I) thiocyanate CuSCN 1.8 × 10
−13
Copper(II) carbonate CuCO
3
2.5 × 10
−10
Copper(II) hydroxide Cu(OH)
2
1.6 × 10
−19
Copper(II) oxalate CuC
2
O
4
4.4 × 10
−10
Copper(II) phosphate Cu
3
(PO
4
)
2
1.4 × 10
−37
Copper(II) sulfide CuS 8.5 × 10
−45
Europium(III) hydroxide Eu(OH)
3
9.4 × 10
−27
Gallium(III) hydroxide Ga(OH)
3
7.3 × 10
−36
Iron(II) carbonate FeCO
3
2.1 × 10
−11
Iron(II) fluoride FeF
2
2.4 × 10
−6
Iron(II) hydroxide Fe(OH)
2
1.8 × 10
−15
Iron(II) sulfide FeS 3.7 × 10
−19
Iron(III) hydroxide Fe(OH)
3
1.6 × 10
−39
Iron(III) phosphate FePO
4
9.9 × 10
−16
Lead(II) bromide PbBr
2
4.6 × 10
−6
Lead(II) carbonate PbCO
3
1.5 × 10
−15
Lead(II) chloride PbCl
2
1.6 × 10
−5
Lead(II) chromate PbCrO
4
2.0 × 10
−16
Lead(II) fluoride PbF
2
4.0 × 10
−8
Lead(II) hydroxide Pb(OH)
2
1.2 × 10
−15
Lead(II) iodide PbI
2
1.4 × 10
−8
Lead(II) phosphate Pb
3
(PO
4
)
2
1.0 × 10
−54
Lead(II) sulfate PbSO
4
1.3 × 10
−8
Lead(II) sulfide PbS 7.0 × 10
−29
Lithium carbonate Li
2
CO
3
8.2 × 10
−4
Magnesium carbonate MgCO
3
1.0 × 10
−5
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)
2
8.9 × 10
−12
Magnesium oxalate MgC
2
O
4
4.8 × 10
−6
Magnesium phosphate Mg
3
(PO
4
)
2
1.0 × 10
−24
Magnesium fluoride MgF
2
6.4 × 10
−9
Manganese(II) carbonate MnCO
3
8.8 × 10
−11
Manganese(II) hydroxide Mn(OH)
2
2.0 × 10
−13
Manganese(II) oxalate MnC
2
O
4
1.7 × 10
−7
Manganese(II) sulfide MnS 2.3 × 10
−13
Mercury(I) bromide Hg
2
Br
2
1.3 × 10
−22
Mercury(I) carbonate Hg
2
CO
3
9.0 × 10
−15
Mercury(I) chloride Hg
2
Cl
2
1.1 × 10
−18
Mercury(I) chromate Hg
2
CrO
4
2.0 × 10
−9
Mercury(I) fluoride Hg
2
F
2
3.1 × 10
−6
Mercury(I) iodide Hg
2
I
2
4.5 × 10
−29
Mercury(I) oxalate Hg
2
C
2
O
4
1.8 × 10
−13
Mercury(I) sulfate Hg
2
SO
4
6.5 × 10
−7
Mercury(I) thiocyanate Hg
2
(SCN)
2
3.2 × 10
−20
Mercury(II) bromide HgBr
2
6.2 × 10
−20
Mercury(II) iodide HgI
2
2.9 × 10
−29
Mercury(II) hydroxide Hg(OH)
2
3.0 × 10
−26
Mercury(II) oxide HgO 3.6 × 10
−26
Mercury(II) sulfide HgS 1.6 × 10
−54
Neodymium carbonate Nd
2
(CO
3
)
3
1.1 × 10
−33
Nickel(II) carbonate NiCO
3
1.4 × 10
−7
Nickel(II) hydroxide Ni(OH)
2
1.6 × 10
−16
Nickel(II) phosphate Ni
3
(PO
4
)
2
4.7 × 10
−32
Nickel(II) sulfide NiS 3.0 × 10
−21
Palladium(II) thiocyanate Pd(SCN)
2
4.4 × 10
−23
Praseodymium hydroxide Pr(OH)
3
3.4 × 10
−24
Radium sulfate RaSO
4
3.7 × 10
−11
Scandium fluoride ScF
3
5.8 × 10
−24
Scandium hydroxide Sc(OH)
3
2.2 × 10
−31
(Continued)
A16 Appendixes
(Continued)
Name Formula K
sp
Name Formula K
sp
TABLE A5.4
Silver(I) acetate AgCH
3
COO 1.9 × 10
−3
Silver(I) arsenate Ag
3
AsO
4
1.0 × 10
−22
Silver(I) bromide AgBr 5.0 × 10
−13
Silver(I) carbonate Ag
2
CO
3
8.1 × 10
−12
Silver(I) chloride AgCl 1.6 × 10
−10
Silver(I) chromate Ag
2
CrO
4
9.0 × 10
−12
Silver(I) cyanide AgCN 6.0 × 10
−17
Silver(I) hydroxide AgOH 2.0 × 10
−8
Silver(I) iodide AgI 1.5 × 10
−16
Silver(I) oxalate Ag
2
C
2
O
4
5.4 × 10
−12
Silver(I) phosphate Ag
3
PO
4
1.8 × 10
−18
Silver(I) sulfate Ag
2
SO
4
1.2 × 10
−5
Silver(I) sulfite Ag
2
SO
3
1.5 × 10
−14
Silver(I) sulfide Ag
2
S 1.6 × 10
−49
Strontium carbonate SrCO
3
7 × 10
−10
Strontium chromate SrCrO
4
3.6 × 10
−5
Strontium fluoride SrF
2
7.9 × 10
−10
Strontium hydroxide Sr(OH)
2
3.2 × 10
−4
Strontium oxalate SrC
2
O
4
5.0 × 10
−8
Strontium phosphate Sr
3
(PO
4
)
2
1.0 × 10
−31
Strontium sulfate SrSO
4
3.2 × 10
−7
Thallium(I) bromide TlBr 3.7 × 10
−6
Thallium(I) chloride TlCl 1.9 × 10
−4
Thallium(I) chromate Tl
2
CrO
4
8.7 × 10
−13
Thallium(I) hydroxide Tl(OH)
3
1.7 × 10
−44
Thallium(I) iodide TlI 5.5 × 10
−8
Thallium(I) sulfide Tl
2
S 6.0 × 10
−22
Tin(II) hydroxide Sn(OH)
2
3.0 × 10
−27
Tin(II) sulfide SnS 1.0 × 10
−26
Yttrium carbonate Y
2
(CO
3
)
3
1.0 × 10
−31
Yttrium hydroxide Y(OH)
3
1.0 × 10
−22
Zinc carbonate ZnCO
3
2.0 × 10
−10
Zinc fluoride ZnF 3.0 × 10
−2
Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)
2
4.5 × 10
−17
Zinc oxalate ZnC
2
O
4
1.4 × 10
−9
Zinc selenide ZnSe 3.6 × 10
−26
Zinc sulfide ZnS 2.5 × 10
−22
Complex Ion Formation Constants (K
f
) at 298 K
Complex Ion K
f
Complex Ion K
f
Complex Ion K
f
TABLE A5.5
[Ag(CN)
2
]
–
5.6 × 10
18
[Ag(EDTA)]
3–
2.1 × 10
7
[Ag(en)
2
]
+
5.0 × 10
7
[Ag(NH
3
)
2
]
+
1.6 × 10
7
[Ag(SCN)
4
]
3–
1.2 × 10
10
[Ag(S
2
O
3
)
2
]
3–
1.7 × 10
13
[Al(EDTA)]
–
1.3 × 10
16
[Al(OH)
4
]
–
1.1 × 10
33
[Al(ox)
3
]
3–
2.0 × 10
16
[Au(CN)
2
] 1.6 × 10
38
[Bi(EDTA)]
2–
8.0 × 10
27
[Ca(EDTA)]
2–
5.0 × 10
10
[Cd(CN)
4
]
2–
6.0 × 10
18
[Cd(en)
3
]
2+
1.2 × 10
12
[Cd(NH
3
)
4
]
2+
1.3 × 10
7
[Co(EDTA)]
2–
2.0 × 10
16
[Co(en)
3
]
2+
8.7 × 10
13
[Co(NH
3
)
6
]
2+
1.3 × 10
5
[Co(ox)
3
]
4–
5.0 × 10
9
[Co(SCN)
4
]
2–
1.0 × 10
3
[Co(EDTA)]
–
1.0 × 10
36
[Co(en)
3
]
3+
4.9 × 10
48
[Co(NH
3
)
6
]
3+
4.5 × 10
33
[Co(ox)
3
]
3–
1.0 × 10
20
[Cr(EDTA)]
–
1.0 × 10
23
[Cr(OH)
4
]
–
8.0 × 10
29
[CuCl
3
]
2–
5.0 × 10
5
[Cu(CN)
2
]
–
1.0 × 10
16
[Cu(CN)
4
]
3–
2.0 × 10
30
[Cu(EDTA)]
2–
5.0 × 10
18
[Cu(en)
2
]
2+
1.0 × 10
20
[Cu(CN)
4
]
2–
1.0 × 10
25
[Cu(NH
3
)
4
]
2+
1.1 × 10
13
[Cu(ox)
2
]
2–
3.0 × 10
8
[Fe(CN)
6
]
4–
1.0 × 10
37
[Fe(EDTA)]
2–
2.1 × 10
14
[Fe(en)
3
]
2+
5.0 × 10
9
[Fe(ox)
3
]
4–
1.7 × 10
5
[Fe(CN)
6
]
3–
1.0 × 10
42
[Fe(EDTA)]
–
1.7 × 10
24
[Fe(ox)
3
]
3–
2.0 × 10
20
[Fe(SCN)]
2+
8.9 × 10
2
[HgCl
4
]
2–
1.2 × 10
15
[Hg(CN)
4
]
2–
3.0 × 10
41
[Hg(EDTA)]
2–
6.3 × 10
21
[Hg(en)
2
]
2+
2.0 × 10
23
[HgI
4
]
2–
6.8 × 10
29
[Hg(ox)
2
]
2–
9.5 × 10
6
[Ni(CN)
4
]
2–
2.0 × 10
31
[Ni(EDTA)]
2–
3.6 × 10
18
[Ni(en)
3
]
2+
2.1 × 10
18
[Ni(NH
3
)
6
]
2+
5.5 × 10
8
[Ni(ox)
3
]
4–
3.0 × 10
8
[PbCl
3
]
–
2.4 × 10
1
[Pb(EDTA)]
2–
2.0 × 10
18
[PbI
4
]
2–
3.0 × 10
4
[Pb(OH)
3
]
–
3.8 × 10
14
[Pb(ox)
2
]
2–
3.5 × 10
6
[Pb(S
2
O
3
)
3
]
4–
2.2 × 10
6
[PtCl
4
]
2–
1.0 × 10
16
[Pt(NH
3
)
6
]
2+
2.0 × 10
35
[V(EDTA)]
–
8.0 × 10
25
[Zn(CN)
4
]
2–
1.0 × 10
18
[Zn(EDTA)]
2–
3.0 × 10
16
[Zn(en)
3
]
2+
1.3 × 10
14
[Zn(NH
3
)
4
]
2+
4.1 × 10
8
[Zn(OH)
4
]
2–
4.6 × 10
17
[Zn(ox)
3
]
4–
1.4 × 10
8
Appendix 7 Standard Reduction Potentials at 298 K A17
Appendix 6
Water Vapor Pressure Table
Appendix 7
Standard Reduction Potentials at 298 K
All half-reaction potentials are reported to two decimal places.
E° (V) Reduction Half-reaction
+2.87 F
2
(g) + 2e
−
n 2F
−
(aq)
+2.07 O
3
(g) + 2H
+
(aq) + 2e
−
n O
2
(g) + H
2
O(l)
+2.05 S
2
O
8
2−
(aq) + 2e
−
n SO
4
2−
(aq)
+1.99 Ag
2+
(aq) + e
−
n Ag
+
(aq)
+1.82 Co
3+
(aq) + e
−
n Co
2+
(aq)
+1.78 H
2
O
2
(aq) + 2H
+
(aq) + 2e
−
n 2H
2
O(l)
+1.70 Ce
4+
(aq) + e
−
n Ce
3+
(aq)
+1.69 Au
+
(aq) + e
−
n Au(s)
+1.69 PbO
2
(s) + 4H
+
(aq) + SO
4
2−
(aq) + 2e
−
n PbSO
4
(s) + 2H
2
O(l)
+1.68 MnO
4
−
(aq) + 4H
+
(aq) + 3e
−
n MnO
2
(s) + 2H
2
O(l)
+1.67 Pb
4+
(aq) + 2e
−
n Pb
2+
(aq)
+1.63 2HClO(aq) + 2H
+
(aq) + 2e
−
n Cl
2
(g) + 2H
2
O(l)
+1.60 2HBrO(aq) + 2H
+
(aq) + 2e
−
n Br
2
(l) + 2H
2
O(l)
+1.60 IO
4
−
(aq) + 2H
+
(aq) + 2e
−
n IO
3
−
(aq) + H
2
O(l)
+1.51 MnO
4
−
(aq) + 8H
+
(aq) + 5e
−
n Mn
2+
(aq) + 4H
2
O(l)
+1.51 Mn
3+
(aq) + e
−
n Mn
2+
(aq)
+1.50 Au
3+
(aq) + 3e
−
n Au(s)
+1.46 PbO
2
(s) + 4H
+
(aq) + 2e
−
n Pb
2+
(aq) + 2H
2
O(l)
+1.36 Cl
2
(g) + 2e
−
n 2Cl
−
(aq)
+1.33 CrO
7
2−
(aq) + 14H
+
(aq) + 6e
−
n 2Cr
3+
(aq) + 7H
2
O(l)
+1.24 O
3
(g) + H
2
O(l) + 2e
−
n O
2
(g) + 2OH
−
(aq)
+1.23 O
2
(g) + 4H
+
(aq) + 4e
−
n 2H
2
O(l)
+1.21 MnO
2
(s) + 4H
+
(aq) + 2e
−
n Mn
2+
(aq) + 2H
2
O(l)
+1.20 IO
3
−
(aq) + 6H
+
(aq) + 5e
−
n
1
/
2
I
2
(s) + 3H
2
O(l)
+1.09 Br
2
(l) + 2e
−
n 2Br
−
(aq)
+1.00 VO
2
+
(aq) + 2H
+
(aq) + e
−
n VO
2+
(aq) + H
2
O(l)
0 4.58
5 6.54
10 9.21
11 9.84
12 10.52
13 11.23
14 11.99
15 12.79
20 17.54
21 18.62
22 19.80
23 21.05
24 22.36
25 23.74
26 25.20
28 28.34
30 31.82
33 37.74
37 47.09
40 55.35
Vapor Pressure Vapor Pressure Vapor Pressure
T (°C) (mm Hg) T (°C) (mm Hg) T (°C) (mm Hg)
50 92.57
60 149.4
70 233.7
80 355.1
90 525.7
95 634.0
96 657.7
97 682.2
98 707.4
99 733.4
100 760.0
(Continued)