Jackson M.J. Micro and Nanomanufacturing
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Microgrinding 311
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.43. Binderless diamond grinding of chip packaging reveals defects such as
(a) tear of Cu pads and (b) eccentric via ducts [94].
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.4. Binderless diamond grinding of chip packaging shows (a) a near perfect
5*^
layer with (b) an open circuit at one end [94]
6.5.4 Freeform Optics
Free-form surfaces are not new to mankind, and sculptured idols and
monuments bear testimony to human skills. They have been perva-
sive in manufacturing owing to their exceptional performance and
properties. A novel optical system with free-form optical surfaces
was developed for Polaroid's X-70 instant camera. They have found
applications in eyewear, electro-optics, defense and automotive in-
dustries. Mirrors for surveillance, LTV lenses for lithography, x-ray
mirrors for x-ray lithography, laser rods, and windows are some of
312 Micro-and Nanomanufacturing
the important defense and commercial applications of free-form op-
tics.
The advantages afforded by free-form surfaces are numerous.
Other benefits offered by free-form surfaces to optical systems are:
improving aerospace designs such as improvements in field of view,
aerodynamics, detectability, and cost. They could also improve
semiconductors, lithography, and imaging.
Free-form optics are unsymmetric about any axis of revolution.
They are sometimes categorized as one kind of asphere with non-
rotational symmetry. They are also referred to as conformal optics -
combination of aspheric, spherical, cylindrical, conical, diffractive,
piano, or ogive (pointed) shapes. Despite the particularity in the
definition and the design of these surfaces, the manufacturing sys-
tems treat them as free-form surfaces. Some examples of free-form
optical surfaces are shown in Fig. 6.45.
Fabrication of free-form optical surfaces requires multi-axis ma-
chining centers and metrology system. The machining precision
needed to meet the system performance requirements for free-form
optics, non-traditional military optics, for example, exceeds the ca-
pabilities of commercially available machine tools and processes by
two to three orders of magnitude. These free-form optics, machines,
and metrology devices represent the next frontier in ultraprecision
machining technology. Table 6.7 compares accuracy obtainable by
the two methods of manufacturing.
Table 6.7. Comparison of free-form surface finish by different processes.
Process Surface finish Form accuracy (^m)
RMS (nm) 0.204
Diamond turning 3 0.057
Diamond grinding 4.4 0.214
Microgrinding 313
y
0
Fig. 6.45 Various shapes of free form optics and their appHcation [89]
6.5.5 Material Removal Rates
Ductile mode machining is generally used when mirror finishes
are required in hard and brittle materials. To avoid cracking, depths
of cut are between 1% and 10% of those when producing a mirror
finish on a metal.
Diamond Turning
Diamond turning has been used to turn germanium with roughness
values of the order of 5-6 |Lxm when machining 50 mm diameter
samples. Optics made from germanium, zinc sulfide, and silicon
314 Micro-
and
Nanomanufacturing
have been successfully turned using diamond. Typical diamond
turning parameters
are
shown
in
Table
6.8.
Table
6.8
Typical diamond turning parameters
Work-
piece
Mate-
rial
Alumi-
num
Copper
Elec-
troless
nickel
PMMA
Spindle
speed
(rpm)
800
800
400
1000
Cool-
ant
Oil
Oil
Oil
Air/oil
Rough-
ing
depth
of
cut
(mm)
0.05
0.05
0.007
0.25
Roughing
feedrate
(mm/min)
12-25
12-25
5
15
Finishing
depth
of
cut (mm)
0.0025
0.0025
0.0012
0.012
Finishing
feedrate
(mm/min)
2.5
2.5
2.5
3.5
Diamond Grinding
When diamond grinding, diamond cutting points
can be
expected
to remove material
in
the ductile machining mode. Typical grinding
parameters
are:
Grinding wheel speed: 30
- 60
m/s;
Workpiece speed:
0.1-1.0
m/min;
Depth of cut: 0.001
-
0.01
mm;
Specific removal rate:
0.05 -
0.2 mm^/mm.s;
Total power:
<1 kW.
Polishing rates
are
even more critical
and are
shown
in
previous sec-
tions of this chapter.
6.6 Conclusions
Among machining processes such
as
turning, milling, drilling,
and
grinding,
the
latter started
as a
precision process, achieved high pre-
cision status with superabrasives,
and
became
an
ultraprecision
technique with development
of
rigid machine tools.
It
competes with
Microgrinding 315
ultraprecision diamond turning and is no longer labeled as random
processes at the ultraprecision level.
6.7 Problems
1.
What is precision machining and grinding?
2.
Describe Taniguchi's classification of precision machining
processes.
3.
Describe Scattergood' s model of ultraprecision machining.
4.
How are grinding wheels structured?
5.
Describe and explain how bonds are selected for grinding
wheels.
6. Describe the many types of abrasive grain.
7.
Describe the properties of hard and brittle materials.
8. How does grade and concentration affect the giinding proc-
ess?
9. What is creep feed grinding and how are wheels specified for
such processes?
10.
What is a precision grinding process and how would you
achieve it?
11.
Describe the use of a binderless wheel for grinding silicon
chips.
12.
What is partial ductile mode grinding?
13.
Explain and illustrate how aspheric surfaces are generated.
14.
What are the requirements of a machine tool for producing
surface roughness levels in the nanometer range?
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