Hawkes P.W., Spence J.C.H. (Eds.) Science of Microscopy. V.1 and 2
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960 M.P. Nikiforov and D.A. Bonnell
available, but there is a long way to go before combined electrical,
optical, and magnetic probes become available. The gap between
invention/discovery and the availability of these tools through com-
mercial vendors is on the order of 8–10 years. Min imizing this gap
would advance numerous fi elds that rely on highresolution structure/
property characterization.
Acknowledgments. The authors would like to acknowledge fi nancial
support from NSF (DMR05-20020, DMR-0425780), DoE (DE-FG02-00
ER45813-A000). Dr. Sergei Kalinin is gratefully acknowledged for
extremely helpful and informative discussion.
Temperature
Chemical environment
Sample stimulation
dc + high frequency ac lateral modulation
Back gate modulation
Frequency dependence
Dc + modulated magnetic field
Single wavelength optical
Wavelength modulation
Tip Modulation
mechanical
electrical
optical
Detection
Higher order harmonics
Multiple harmonics
Frequency dependence
Optical + electrical
Optical + mechanical
Wavelength dependence
Figure 14–24. Generalized approach to SPM. An ideal probe system. Tip
modulation, detection, sample stimulation, and environment might be changed
to characterize the system for each specifi c case.
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15
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy in
Surface Science
Peter Sutter
1 Introduction
After its invention in 1982 by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer (Binnig
et al., 1982, 1983), who were awarded the 1986 Nobel Price for this
discovery, scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) has rapidly become
a standard technique for high-resolution imaging of conducting
surfaces. As such, it has revolutionized the way surface science is
conducted. Having relied almost entirely on diffraction methods for
determining surface structures, and electron spectroscopy for measur-
ing surface chemistry and electronic structure, surface scientists imme-
diately embraced the powerful imaging and spectroscopy capabilities
of STM. Earlier techniques for high-resolution surface microscopy
include fi eld ion microscopy (Muller and Tsong, 1969), low-energy
electron microscopy (Bauer, 1998), ultrahigh-vacuum scanning elec-
tron microscopy (Venables, 2000), and refl ection electron microscopy
(Yagi, 1982). Field ion microscopy, the fi rst surface imaging technique
to routinely provide atomic resolution on metals over small sample
areas, has recently seen a revival in the form of modern atom probes
that provide tomographic images of three-dimensional sample volumes
(Cerezo et al., 2001), nicely complementing the surface imaging capa-
bilities of STM. The other techniques, none of which achieves atomic
resolution, have been developed further for specifi c applications. As an
example, low-energy electron microscopy has become a powerful tech-
nique for real-time microscopy of fast surface processes, such as epi-
taxial growth or surface reactions (Bauer, 1998). STM itself has recently
been at the center of yet another scientifi c revolution, enabling system-
atic studies on individual structures composed of a small number of
atoms or molecules, and on the order of a few nanometers in size.
This chapter attempts to provide an introduction of the basic con-
cepts of STM, together with illustrations of applications of the tech-
nique. Over two decades after its invention, the applications of STM
for imaging, spectroscopy, and manipulation at the atomic level have
clearly become too numerous to allow for a comprehensive review. In
view of the wide range of applications and overall maturity of the