Hawkes P.W., Spence J.C.H. (Eds.) Science of Microscopy. V.1 and 2

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Index I17

Phase contrast imaging

in BF STEM, 81–82

in LEEM, conditions for, 628

Phase contrast index function (PCI)

HRTEM and, 24

for mismatched values, 25

Phase contrast layout, of TXM, 868–870

Phase contrast transfer function (PCTF), 82

HRTEM, 14

plottings of, 15

Phase correlation function (PCF)

defocus difference and, 24

relative defocus and, 23–24

XCF and, 23

Phase correlation function/phase contrast index

function (PCF/PCI) approach, 25

Phase diagram, of water, 238

Phase differences, step contrast for, 629

Phase identiﬁ cation, by dark-ﬁ eld imaging, 626

Phase object approximation (POA), HRTEM and, 9

Phase problem, in optics, 1197

Phase proﬁ le plotting, in electron holography, 1149

Phase stability, in NiAl, 454

Phase transformations

amorphization and, 448–449

crystallization and, 448–449

grain growth and, 448, 452

in magnetic material, 482

melting and, 448–449

in nanostructured materials, 458–463

of silicide, 457

sintering and, in free-standing nanoparticles,

461–463

in situ transmission electron microscopy and,

447–462

solid-liquid interface and, 450–453

solid-to-liquid transformation and, 450–453

Phase transitions, in magnetic materials, 480–481

Phase-only ﬁ ltering (POF), 585

Phonon scattering, 91

multislice formalism and, 92

Phospholipid/protein ﬁ lm, secondary electron

micrograph of, 229, 230

Photoelectron guns, for DTEM, 414–419

materials for, 416–419

metallic emitters and, 417–419

semiconducting emitters and, 416–417

Photoemission, XPEEM and, 659–661

Photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM), 606,

657–691

aberration correction of, 671–677

electron lens aberrations in, 673

electron optical conﬁ guration of, schematic

drawing of, 664

equipotential contours, objective lens, 666

history of, 657–658

intermediate/projective lens on, 666–668

layout of, 659

MTFs of, 670

objective lens of, 665

schematic drawing of, 676

spatial resolution of, 668–675

time-resolved, layout of, 688

transmission of, 668–675

uncorrected, 664–671

X-ray sources for, 658–667

Photoluminescence (PL), 1120

Photomultiplier tube (PMT), 755

Photon maps, atomic scale detail in, 1122

Physisorption/DLVO force, for AFM

macromolecular samples, 1054

Physisorption/hydrophobic/hydrophilic interaction,

AFM and, 1055

Piezoelectric force microscopy (PFM), 945

contrast mechanism maps of, 957

PZT capacitor and, 955

working principle of, 953

Piezoresponse (PR), 954

PL. See Photoluminescence

Planar zone plate

contour plot of, 853

Seidel aberration of, 851

Planar zone plates, contour efﬁ ciency plot of, 854

Plasma display cell, SPEM of, 903

Plasma energy, variation of, 395

Plasmon, 100

Plunge freezing instrumentation, Cryo-ET and, 550

Plunge freezing process steps, Cryo-ET and, 551

PMMA. See Polymethyl methacrylate

PMT. See Photomultiplier tube

POA. See Phase object approximation

POF. See Phase-only ﬁ ltering

Point defects formation/clustering, electron beam-

induced phenomena and, 511–513

Point image, simulation experiment of, 1240

Point spread function (PSF), 412, 759, 791

STED and, 820

variations in

with focusing depth, 760

with mismatch conditions, 760

Polycrystalline Au/n-Si(001), BEEM on, 1009

Polycrystalline materials

crystallographic characterization of, 134

deformation in, 487–490

Polycrystalline sample, cross section of, 193

Polycrystalline ZnO, transport imaging in, 948

Polyﬁ n-polycarbonate polymer composite, section of,

369

Polymers, X-ray transmission spectromicroscopy of,

899

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), secondary

electron micrograph of, 208

Poly-N-isopropylacrylamide ( PNIPA Am),

secondary electron micrograph of, 235

Polystyrene spheres, interferometric TXM image of,

899

Polyvinyl methyl ether (PVME), high-resolution

micrographs, 221

Pore protomers, 1063

Position measurement, with CRLB, 1245–1246

I18 Index

Postcolumn imaging ﬁ lter, 306

Power series expansions

of electrostatic potential, 729–730

of vector potential, 730

PR. See Piezoresponse

Precipitate growth mechanism, 460

Primary electrons, 141

Principle of reciprocity, 80

Prism spectrometer system, 301

Probe electron density, real space intensity

distribution of, 315

Probe function, 71

Probe intensity, 103

Probe proﬁ le plots, with chromatic defocus

spreads, 122

Probing buried interfaces I, 1007–1012

Probing buried interfaces II, 1012–1013

Projected charge density (PCD), HRTEM and, 12

Projection-slice theorem, 579

Propagation-based phase contrast, 884

Protein

features, imaging radiation dose for, 840

surface layer, secondary electron micrograph of,

216

Zernike phase contrast in, intrinsic amplitude

and, 876

PSF. See Point spread function

Pulmonary surfactant, AFM and, 1060–1061

Pulse compression, DTEM and, 435–436

Pulse sequence, in laser-synchrotron, 687

Pulsed circuit, waveguide image and, 688

Punkt1, 248

PVME. See Polyvinyl methyl ether

PZT capacitor, PFM and, 955

Quadrupole, 700–701

Quadrupole corrector, schematic drawing of, 712

Quadrupole-octopole correctors, spherical

aberration correctors and, 712–715

Quantitative measurements, in electron

holography, 1171–1172

Quantum efﬁ ciencies, of less sensitive metals,

420

Quantum size contrast, of Fe ﬁ lm, 629

Quantum size effects, 1012–1013

Radial artery, secondary electron micrograph of,

207

Radiation damage, SEM and, 201–203

Radiation sensitivity, Cryo-ET and, 554–557

Radiation-induced dislocation glide, 515

Radiation-induced dislocation motion, 514

Radiolarian, stereopair of, 161

Raft proteins, diffusion coefﬁ cients for, 1064

Ray aberrations, zone plate image quality and,

847

Rayleigh deﬁ nition, of resolution, 353

Rayleigh resolution, 1229–1230

diffraction limit and, 1231–1234

RC. See Ring cluster

Real space intensity distribution, of probe electron

density, 315

Real space intensity plots, of electron intensity

dispersion, 316

Real structures, zone plate efﬁ ciency and, 853

Rec-DNA complex, STM tomographies of, 1026

Reciprocal inelastic mean free path, 612

Reciprocity, partial coherence and, 882

Reconstructed modulus, of exit-plane wavefunction,

Reconstruction, Cryo-ET and, 577–582

Reference image plane, 25

Regions/energy ranges, for ELNES, 384

Relative defocus, PCF and, 23–24

Relativistic beams, DTEM and, 436

Resistivity correlation, with structure, 502

RESOLFT. See Reversible saturable optically linear

ﬂ uorescence transition

Resolution, 1228–1261

calculations for, parameter deﬁ nitions for, 350

coherence and, 883–884

for CXDI, 1221–1223

deterministic model-based, 1236–1240

discussion of, 1260–1262

electron holography in, 1171–1172

energy dependence and, 621

FESEM and, 212–214

introduction to, 1228–1229

limits, 791–795

acceptance angle and, 621

HRTEM of, 13–17

of STEM, 117–125

maximum likelihood estimation and, 1248–1252

partial coherence and, 881

Rayleigh, 353, 1229–1230

SEM and, 182–195

Sparrow, 1230

in spatial frequency domain, 1230–1236

statistical experimental design and, 1252–1258

statistical model-based, 1240–1258

three-dimensional optical sectioning and, 761–763

two-point, 1229–1230

ultimate model-based, 1258–1259

variation, electron beam thickness and, 352

Resolution-determining zone plates, 855–856

Resolution/transmission, of aberration corrected

PEEM microscope, 677–678

Reversible saturable optically linear ﬂ uorescence

transition (RESOLFT), 795

large saturation factors, at low powers, 826–827

principle of, 813

Ribosome(s), mapping of, 585

70S ribosome, averaged structure of, 588

Ring cluster (RC), 637

Road lines, secondary electron micrograph of, 205

Ronchigrams

of Au nanoparticles, 78

coherent convergent beam electron diffraction

and, 73–78

of crystalline materials, 74–76

Index I19

of noncrystalline materials, 77–78

schematic of, 76

Rotational ellipsoidal mirror, 152

Rutile TiO

(110), STM on, 999

S segregation, at Ni grain boundary, 351

SAD. See Selected area diffraction

Sample. See also Specimen

damage, with DTEM, 428–433

deformation, AFM and, 1034–1037

environment, for AFM, 1051–1052

preparation

for AFM, 1052–1058

with Cryo-ET, 547–549

for STM, 973–975

thickness measurement, electron holography and,

1148–1150

tip, energy level diagrams of, 1072

Saturated environment, imaging in, 506–507

SBZ. See Surface Brillouin zone

Scanners

for AFM, 1050–1051

commercial, frequency response of, 1044

elements of, AFM natural frequencies for, 1043

Scanning capacitance microscopy (SCM), 949

Scanning electron acoustic microscopy (SEAM), 182

Scanning electron microscope (SEM), 65, 133–257

abbreviations with, 135–137

AE and, 181

applications for, 203

attached equipment for, 155–157

CL and, 177

of Co dots, 1166

contamination and, 201–203

contrast formation and, 182–195

conventional, 139–208

crystal orientation contrast and, 193

digital imaging recording with, 157–158

EBIC and, 192–193

electron guns and, 143–145

electron lenses and, 145–148

electron probe current in, 147

at elevated pressure, 237–244

FIB and, 196, 197, 200

focus depth of, 142

of gold balls, 1213

life science applications of, 203

magnetic contrast, 194–195

magniﬁ cation calibration for, 162–163

material contrast and, 189–191

microanalysis in, 246–252

radiation damage and, 201–203

resolution and, 182–195

SEs and, 169–172

in situ treatments for, 203

special topics on, 157–163

specimen applications for, 201

specimen preparation for, 195–201

specimen stages for, 155–157

specimen tilting with, 158–162

stereo imaging with, 158–162

symbols with, 137–139

tilt compensation/dynamic focusing in, 159, 160

topographic contrast and, 183–189

voltage contrast and, 191–192

X-rays and, 178–180

Scanning ﬂ uorescence X-ray microscope (SFXM),

layout of, 873–875

Scanning force microscopy (SFM), 933

Scanning gate microscopy (SGM), 950

Scanning impedance microscopy (SIM), 950

Scanning low-energy electron microscopy (SLEEM),

221–222

Scanning Microscope Analysis and Resolution

Testing (SMART), 183–189

Scanning near-ﬁ eld optical microscope (SNOM),

1031

Scanning photoemission microscope (SPEM), of

plasma display cell, 903

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM)

advanced techniques, 944–958

for dielectric properties, 953–958

for transport properties, 945–953

future trends in, 958–960

generalized approach to, 960

imaging properties of, 944–958

in materials science, 929–960

of oxides, 939, 940

variations of, 946

Scanning surface potential microscopy (SSPM), 945

of SAM, 947

working principles for, 946

Scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM),

65–127

aberration correction and, 123–125

chromatic aberration and, 118–119

column, imaging-to-diffraction mode in, 110–112

as dedicated instrument, 110–112

electron optical conﬁ guration for, 292

electron sources for, 114–117

ﬁ nite source size and, 118–119

images, phase component maps and, 368

introduction to, 65–69

operating principles of, 65–68

photograph of, 67

probe, 69–73

diffraction-limited, 72

resolution limits of, 117–125

schematic of, 66

spectrum, schematic description of, 366

spectrum imaging in, 104–107

spectrum imaging technique, application of, 367

spherical aberration of, geometric optics view of,

69, 70

statistical experimental design of, 1254–1256

TEM and, 175

X-ray analysis, 107–109

Scanning transmission electron microscope/

Electron energy-loss spectroscopy STEM-

EELS, mapping of, 365–366

I20 Index

Scanning transmission X-ray microscope (STXM)

cosine amplitude grating imaging with, 881

layout of, 870–873

MTF for, 878

schematic drawing of, 863

Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), 494, 495, 915,

929

atom/molecule manipulation and, 1003–1006

bias-dependent, imaging and, 984–986

capturing dynamic surface processes and,

998–1003

elastic vacuum tunneling and, 970–972

energy-ﬁ ltered, 985

Ge imaging with, 979

at high/low temperatures, 996–1006

motivation/issues with, 997

image simulation, 1016–1019

imaging applications for, 975–976

imaging principles of, 969–970

instrumentation for, 975–976

introduction to, 969–970, 1070–1073

large-area atom-resolved, 981

with LHe continuous-ﬂ ow cryostat, 1074–

1076

molecular vibrational spectra with, 1117

movies/atom tracking, 998–1003

operating environment for, 973–975

of oxygen/CO, 1109

of Rec-DNA complex, 1026

on rutile TiO

(110), 999

samples for, 973–975

silicon surface imaging with, 977–982

simultaneous mass spectrometry and, in catalytic

ﬂ ow reactor, 983

surface manipulation, 497

in surface science, 969–1019

of SWCNT end, 1094

tip, bond formation with, 1113

tip trajectory for, 972

tips for, 973–975

variable-temperature, 1076

Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)-induced

photo emission, LT-STM and, 1119–1125

Scattered electrons, for vitreous ice, 567

Schematic current v. voltage curves, 1115

Schottky emission cathode (SEC), 209

Schottky ﬁ eld-emission gun, 117

Scintillation detector, 149

SCM. See Scanning capacitance microscopy

SDD. See Silicon drift detector

SE. See Secondary electron(s)

SEAM. See Scanning electron acoustic microscopy

SEC. See Schottky emission cathode

Secondary electron(s) (SE), 109

ADF micrographs of, 176

detector, 68

generation, schematic drawing of, 168

micrographs, of commercial cross-grating replica,

163

SEM and, 169–172

yield

BSE yield and, 171

schematic drawing of, 170

Secondary electron micrograph

of austenite, 256

of birch pollen, 217

of cross-fractured semiconductor structure, 227

of DPPTE, 231

with ESEM, 242

with ESEM-E3, 243

of fern fossil, 205

of FIB color ﬁ lm, 200

of FIB tyre, 200

of glass knife, 234

of glass micropipette, 233

of keratinocyte, 236

of leaf cuticula, 237

of phospholipid/protein ﬁ lm, 229, 230

of PMMA, 208

of PNIPA Am, 235

of protein surface layer, 216

of radial artery, 207

of road lines, 205

of silicon calibration standard, 228

of starch glycolys D, 244

of steel ball, 184, 185

SuperSharpSilicon AFM probe silicon cantilevers

of, 229

of tartar, 186

of thiol monolayer, 230

of zeolite FAU, 219

Second-difference technique, 382

Segregated B-doped Si(100), images of, 634

Seidel aberration, of planar zone plate, 851

Selected area diffraction (SAD), 110, 111

aperture, 110

Self-assembled Co nanoparticle, low magniﬁ cation

bright-ﬁ eld image, 1159

Self-assembled monolayers (SAM), SSPM of, 947

Self-assembled quantum dots

BEEM on, 1011

cross-sectional STM on, 1014

SEM. See Scanning electron microscope

Semiconductor(s)

dopant potentials in, electrostatic ﬁ eld

measurement and, 1173–1182

FM-AFM of, 940–942

thin ﬁ lms on, 635–638

Semiconductor detector, 151

Semiconductor device structure, electrostatic

potential distribution in, 1175

Semiconductor emitters, photoelectron guns and,

416–417

Sextupoles

arrangement, 704

correctors

aberration correctors and, 715–716

schematic drawing of, 716

spherical aberration correctors and, 715–716

Wien ﬁ lters with, 724

Index I21

SFM. See Scanning force microscopy

SFXM. See Scanning ﬂ uorescence X-ray microscope

SGM. See Scanning gate microscopy

Shaped grooves, zone plates with, 859

Short/long range forces, distance dependencies of,

932

Si, surfaces, diffraction contrast from, 625

Si(001)

constant-current STM images of, 983

surface, Si

0.86

0.14

pseudomorphically strained

ﬁ lm on, 902

Si(100)

homoepitaxial growth of, 633

LEEM and, 632–634

NC-AFM of, 942

Si(110), energy-ﬁ ltered electron diffraction pattern

of, 307

Si(111)

Al ﬁ lms on, 636

ball-and-stick model of, 977

CITS on, 989

FM-AFM of, 940–942

NC-AFM image of, 936

Pb growth on, 636

surface, with LEEM, 631–632

Si(112), annular dark-ﬁ eld detector scanning

transmission microscope image of, 125

0.86

0.14

pseudomorphically strained ﬁ lm, on

Si(001) surface, 902

1-x

/Si(001) heteropitaxy, lattice mismatch strain

during, 982

Side entry cryo-holder, for Cryo-ET, 562

SiGe heterostructures, dislocation dynamics in, 494

Signal generation, electron-specimen interaction

and, 163–182

Signal processing, 297

Signals for thin sample, schematic drawing of, 141

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 411

Si(100)/gold(100), 1s state for, 1255

Silicide formation, solid state diffusion reaction and,

455–456

Silicide phase transformations, 457

Silicon calibration standard, secondary electron

micrograph of, 228

Silicon drift detector (SDD), 248

Silicon nitride cantilever, frequency response of,

1044

Silicon oxidation, 470

Silicon surface, STM imaging of, 977–982

Silicon-on-insulator (SOI), 634

SIM. See Scanning impedance microscopy

SIMION simulations, of angle/energy distributions,

of emitted electrons, 669

Simultaneous mass spectrometry, STM imaging

and, in catalytic ﬂ ow reactor, 1001

Simultaneous structure analysis, for DWNT, 504

Single active ﬁ lament, 1033

Single atom, molecule manipulation and, LT-STM

and, 1105–1114

Single axis tilt series data acquisition scheme, 540

Single crystals, deformation in, 487–490

Single lens, wavefront from, 792

Single molecule vibrational spectroscopy/

microscopy, 994

Single particle approach, 540–543

Cryo-ET with, 547

of giant protein complex TPP II, 541

Single projection image, of frozen hydrated yeast,

895

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), 1093

electron conﬁ nement in, 1093

end, STM image of, 1094

Sintering, phase transformations and, in free-

standing nanoparticles, 461–463

Si(Li) X-ray diode, schematic drawing of, 247

Size-dependent transformations, in embedded

nanostructures, 458–460

SLEEM. See Scanning low-energy electron

microscopy

Small elements, magnetization of, 480

Small magnetic elements, 478–480

SMART. See Scanning Microscope Analysis and

Resolution Testing; Spectromicroscope for

All Relevant Techniques

Sn into Bi alloying, 462

SNOM. See Scanning near-ﬁ eld optical microscope

SNR. See Signal-to-noise ratio

Soft X-ray(s) zone plates

aberration size of, 849

diffraction pattern, tomographic reconstruction

from, 1217

of square-wave test objects, 856

tomography, 885

transmission diffraction pattern

from gold balls, 1212

from lithographed letters, 1211

SOI. See Silicon-on-insulator

Solid state diffusion reaction, silicide formation

and, 455–456

Solid-liquid interface, phase transformations and,

450–453

Solid-to-liquid transformation, phase

transformations and, 450–453

Source coherence, for sample illumination, 289

Space charge layers, at grain boundaries, in

electron holography, 1182

Sparrow resolution, 1230

diffraction limit and, 1231–1234

Spatial dependence, of differential conductance,

1083

Spatial frequency domain, resolution in,

1230–1236

Spatial localization

of EELS signals, 101–104

of inelastic imaging, 101–104

Spatial resolution

in EFTEM elemental mapping, 371–374

history of, 671

of PEEM, 668–675

Spatial/temporal resolution, classiﬁ cation by, 407

I22 Index

Specimen. See also Sample

preparation, for SEM, 195–201

schematic drawing of, 196

rotation, around tilt axis, geometric model of, 572

stages

FESEM and, 212

for HRTEM, 34–35

for SEM, 155–157

surface proﬁ le, schematic drawing of, 186

tilting

schematic drawing of, 1156

with SEM, 158–162

Spectra quantiﬁ cation, for correction factors, 345

Spectra visibility, variation of, with sample

thickness, 347

Spectrometers, EELS and, 301–307

Spectromicroscope for All Relevant Techniques

(SMART), schematic drawing of, 618

Spectroscopic photoemission and low-energy

electron microscopy (SPELEEM), 606

operation modes of, 623

Spectroscopy techniques, comparison of, 282

Spectrum imaging

of data cube, 104

for Gd, 105

in STEM, 104–107

Spectrum imaging technique, for EFTEM, 364

SPELEEM. See Spectroscopic photoemission and

low-energy electron microscopy

SPEM. See Scanning photoemission microscope

Spherical aberrations, 146

aplanatic corrector of, 720

correctors

quadrupole-octopole correctors and, 712–715

sextupole correctors and, 715–716

DECO of, 721

and HRTEM, 32

lower bound of standard deviation for, 1256

zone plate image quality and, 847–849

Sphingolipid-cholesterol rafts, AFM and, 1062–1064

Spin manipulator, schematic drawing of, 643

Spin reorientation transition, in Fe-Co alloy layer,

646

Spin-polarized low-energy electron microscopy

(SPLEEM), 605–647, 642–647

Co(0001) surface image of, 644

instrumentation for, 614–619

Spin-polarized scanning tunneling microscopy

(SP-STM)

atomic resolution magnetic imaging with, 1127

on Gd(0001), 992

LT-STM and, 1125–1132

SPLEEM. See Spin-polarized low-energy electron

microscopy

SPM. See Scanning probe microscopy

SP-STM. See Spin-polarized scanning tunneling

microscopy

Square-wave test objects, soft x-ray images of, 856

SrTiO

, NC-AFM of, 939–940

SrTiO

(100), KFM of Sigma5 grain boundary in, 931

SSPM. See Scanning surface potential microscopy

Standing wave patterns, on copper, 1083

Starch glycolys D, secondary electron micrograph of,

244

Stark effect, LT-STM and, 1100–1101

Statistical experimental design

of HRTEM, 1256–1258

resolution and, 1252–1258

of STEM, 1254–1256

Statistical model-based resolution, 1240–1258

CRLB and, 1244–1248

parametric statistical models of observation with,

1242–1244

STED. See Stimulated emission depletion

Steel, nanoindentation of, 496

Steel ball

backscattered electron micrograph of, 155

BSE micrograph of, 185

BSE micrographs, 190

STEM. See Scanning transmission electron

microscope

Step contrast, for phase differences, 629

Stereo imaging, with SEM, 158–162

Stereopair, of radiolarian, 161

Stimulated emission depletion (STED), 818–826

ﬂ uorescence focal spot and, 822

images with, 819

PSF and, 820

subdiffraction immunoﬂ uorescence imaging with,

825

STM. See Scanning tunneling microscopy

Structural phase transitions, for in situ transmission

electron microscopy, 453–457

Structure correlation, with resistivity, 502

Structure determination, using ADF images, 94–95

STXM. See Scanning transmission X-ray microscope

Stylus apex/sample, forces between, 1037–1040

Stylus geometry, AFM and, 1033

Subdiffraction immunoﬂ uorescence imaging, with

STED, 825

Superalloy NIMONIC, surface of, 220

Superconducting materials, in situ TEM, 481–483

Superconductivity, LT-STM and, 1129–1132

Superconductors, vortex motion in, 483

Superresolution, 1234–1236

diffraction limit and, 1230–1236

SuperSharpSilicon AFM probe silicon cantilevers,

secondary electron micrograph of, 229

Surface Brillouin zone (SBZ), 1088

Surface imaging, 134

Surface manipulation, STM and, 497

Surface mobility, nanostructures from, 466

Surface reactions, 513–514

crystal growth and, 463–476

Surface science, STM in, 969–1019

Surface state dispersion, direct visualization of, 1090

Surface state electrons, hot, experimental lifetime of,

1099

Index I23

Surface state lifetime measurement, 1097

Surface states, on Ag(111), 1086

Surface step structure growth, nucleation and, 631

Surface structure

measurement/modiﬁ cation of, 464–466

mechanical properties of, 495–500

Surface structure identiﬁ cation, of Ge(105), 1019

Surface topography, of cross-sectioned diode, 951

SWCNTs. See Single-walled carbon nanotubes

Symmetric unipotential lens, electrode geometry of,

667

Tapping mode, latex-beads imaged in, 1048

Tartar, BSE micrograph of, 186

TCC. See Transmission cross coefﬁ cient

TDS. See Thermal diffuse scattering

TEM. See Transmission electron microscope

Tetrode electron mirror, aberration correction by,

676

Tetrode mirror

aberration coefﬁ cients of, 726

section of, 726

within system, 727

TEY. See Total electron yield

TFE. See Thermal ﬁ eld emitter

Thermal diffuse scattering (TDS), 84

cross sections of, 92

Thermal ﬁ eld emitter (TFE), 209

Thermionic emission triode gun, schematic

drawing, 143

Thermionic gun, 134

Thick zone plates, 861–862

Thin ﬁ lms

magnetic materials, 477–478

mechanical properties of, 495–500

phase transformations in, 458–463

semiconductors on, 635–638

in situ indentation/straining of, 495–496

Thiol monolayer, secondary electron micrograph of,

230

Three-dimensional cryoelectron microscopy,

538–547

Three-dimensional imaging, principles of, 538–540

Three-dimensional optical sectioning, resolution

and, 761–763

Three-widow background-subtracted elemental

maps, 1163

magnetic phase contours of, 1164

Through-focus deconvolution, depth-of-focus limit

and, in x-ray microscopes, 887

“Through-the-lens” detection, 154

Tilt axis, 160

specimen rotation of, geometric model of, 572

Tilt compensation/dynamic focusing, in SEM, 159,

160

Tilt/defocus dataset, schematic representation

of, 26

Tilt-induced displacements, HRTEM and, 21

Tilting geometry, with Cryo-ET, 557–560

Time resolution, for DTEM, 421–423

Time-resolved microscopy, 686–690

experimental setup for, 687

introduction to, 686–687

in situ measurement, of ﬁ eld pulse, 687–688

vortex dynamics and, 688–690

TiO

, NC-AFM of, 939–940

TiO

(100), NC-AFM of, 941

TiO

(110), oxygen vacancies on, of O

-mediated

diffusion, 999

Tip(s)

geometries, AFM and, 1032

image interpretation and, 937–939

modeling of, 937

“nanotip” models and, 938–939

for STM, 973–975

trajectory, for STM, 972

Tip-sample interaction, AFM and, 1033–1040

TIRF. See Total internal reﬂ ection ﬂ uorescent

Tomography

of integrated circuit, 901

principle of, 1239

in X-ray microscopes, 884–888

depth-of-focus limit, 885–886

operation principles for, 884–885

Topography, contrast

ETD and, 184

SEM and, 183–189

Total electron yield (TEY), 679

Total inelastic cross sections, atomic number and,

318

Total internal reﬂ ection ﬂ uorescent (TIRF), 1049

TPE. See Two-photon excitation

Transfer functions

comparison of, 48

of EM, 1233

Transition metals, 636

Transmission, of PEEM, 668–675

Transmission cross coefﬁ cient (TCC)

HRTEM and, 27–28

Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 65, 175

AEM and, 273

photo of, 274, 538

speed of, 406

STEM and, 175

Transmission X-ray microscope (TXM), 863

contrast in, 873–875

incoherent illumination with, schematic drawing

of, 877

layout of, 867–868

phase contrast layout of, 868–870

schematic drawing of, 863

Zernike phase contrast, schematic drawing of,

869

Transmitted electrons, 175–177

scattered, 176

Transparency function, of one period, of zone plate,

851

Transparent support ﬁ lm, 175

I24 Index

Transport imaging, in polycrystalline ZnO, 948

Transport properties, advanced SPM techniques of,

945–953

Triangular FeCo structure, vortex dynamics in, 689

Tribology, nanomanipulation and, 497–498

TU Berlin, DTEM, 409

I(V) tunneling spectroscopy, on C

/C-nanotube,

989–993

Two neighboring points image, computer-simulated

experiment of, 1241, 1246

Two-dimensional angular/energy distribution, of

GOS, 322

Two-photon cross sections, for ﬂ uorescent

molecules, 767

Two-photon excitation (TPE), 751

analysis of, 763–765

of ﬂ uorescent molecules and, confocal principles,

754–763

ﬂ uorescent molecules under, 765–767

laser emission time scale for, 773

laser sources for, 773

optical consequences of, 767–769

optical setup for, 769–774

photo of, 771

schematic drawing of, 770

remarks/comments on, 759–761

theoretical analysis of, 757–759

v. conventional excitation, 756

Two-photon excitation (TPE) ﬂ uorescence

microscopy, 751–777

chronology of, 753–754

introduction to, 751–753

Two-point resolution, 1229–1230

TXM. See Transmission X-ray microscope

Tyre, FIB of, secondary electron micrograph of, 200

UED. See Ultrafast electron diffraction

UHV. See Ultrahigh vacuum

UHV SEM. See Ultrahigh vacuum scanning electron

microscopy

UHV-STM. See Ultrahigh vacuum scanning

tunneling microscopy

Ultimate model-based resolution, 1258–1259

observations on, 1258–1259

resolution consequences of, 1259

Ultracorrector, 729

Ultrafast electron diffraction (UED), 406

DTEM timeline development with, 434

Ultrahigh vacuum (UHV), 31, 135

Ultrahigh vacuum scanning electron microscopy

(UHV SEM), 245–246

Ultrahigh vacuum scanning tunneling microscopy

(UHV-STM), 1073

Ultrathin continuous metal layer-coated specimen,

schematic cross section of, 214

Ultrathin windows (UTW), 295

Ultraviolet light-excited photoemission electron

microscopy (UVPEEM), 642

Uncorrected photoemission electron microscopy

(PEEM), aberration/resolution on, 673

UTW. See Ultrathin windows

UVPEEM. See Ultraviolet light-excited

photoemission electron microscopy

Vacuum tunneling, band diagrams for, 971

Validity domains of approximation, diffractive

imaging and, 1201–1205

Van Aken low-energy foil corrector, schematic

drawing of, 718

Van Cittert-Zirnicke theorem, 88

Variable pressure secondary electron (VPSE)

detector, 240

Variable-temperature STM, 1077

with continuous-ﬂ ow cryostat, 1077

Vector potential, power series expansions of, 730

Vertical phase/amplitude hysteresis loops, of

PbTiO

, 955

Very low voltage scanning electron microscope

(VLVSEM), 221–237

contrast formation for, 225–226

detectors/detection strategies for, 225

selected applications for, 226–237

Vibrational spectroscopy, inelastic tunneling and,

993–994

Visible light, epiﬂ uorescence micrographs and,

898

Visualization/image analysis, Cryo-ET and,

582–584

Vitreous ice

microtubules in, imaging of, 568

scattered electrons for, 567

VLVSEM. See Very low voltage scanning electron

microscope

Voltage contrast, SEM and, 191–192

Voltage curves, v. schematic current, 1115

Voltage step generation, across image, 413

Vortex dynamics

time-resolved microscopy and, 688–690

in triangular FeCo structure, 689

Vortex motion, in supercomputers, 483

VPSE detector. See Variable pressure secondary

electron detector

W(110)

epitaxial Fe ribbon crystals on, 647

surface, normal incidence specular reﬂ ectivity

of, 608

Water, phase diagram of, 238

Water microbial colony, chemical maps of, 897

Wave aberration function

HRTEM and, 17–26

schematic diagram of, 17

Wavefront, from single lens, 792

Wavelength dispersive spectrometer (WDX), 134

features of, 249

Wavelength-dispersive X-ray (WDX), principle of,

247

WD. See Working distance

WDX. See Wavelength dispersive spectrometer;

Wavelength-dispersive X-ray

Index I25

Weak phase object approximation (WPOA), HRTEM

and, 10

Wide-band illumination, depth-of-focus limit and,

in x-ray microscopes, 886–887

Wide-band semiconductors, 637

Wien ﬁ lters

correction and, 723–724

with sextupoles, 724

Working distance (WD), 140–141

WPOA. See Weak phase object approximation

XANES. See X-ray absorption near-edge structure

XCF. See Cross correlation function

XEDS. See X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy

Xenon atoms

energy dependence of, elastic mean free electron

path of, 611

patterned array of, 1107

precipitates, dynamics of, 516

XMCD. See X-ray magnetic circular dichroism

XMLD. See X-ray magnetic linear dichroism

XMLD-PEEM. See X-ray magnetic linear dichroism

photoelectron emission microscopy

XPEEM. See X-ray photoemission electron

microscopy

X-ray(s)

analysis

energy dispersive, 107–109

in STEM, 107–109

energy, atomic number and, 276

ﬂ uorescence yield of, 180

generation of, schematic drawing of, 277

interactions

carbon cross sections and, 836

zone plate X-ray microscopes and, 836–839

SEM and, 178–180

soft/hard, aberration size of, 849

sources, for PEEM, 658–667

spectrum of, 178–179

schematic drawing of, 179

X-ray absorption edge, schematic drawing of, 889

X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES),

101

X-ray absorption spectra, of antiferromagnetic

domains, 682

X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (XEDS), 107

X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD),

678, 904

of (Co

)

alloy, 904

of Co, 679

of Ni-Fe ﬁ lm, 905

XMLD and, 685

X-ray magnetic linear dichroism (XMLD), 680

XMCD and, 685

X-ray magnetic linear dichroism photoelectron

emission microscopy (XMLD-PEEM), 1126

X-ray microanalysis, of Cr-Fe-alloy, 250, 251

X-ray microscopy, 862–892

applications of, 892–906

background on, 862–863

biological applications of, 892–895

depth-of-focus limit and, partial volume in, 886

environmental science applications for, 896–897

history of, 873–874

magnetic materials applications for, 903–905

materials science applications of, 897–903

partial coherence in, 876–884

tomography in, 884–888

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), 281

X-ray photoemission electron microscopy (XPEEM),

606, 658–667

absorption and, 659–661

chemical contrast in, 663

elemental contrast in, 661–662

image contrast in, 661–663

iron oxide clusters image with, 662

Photoemission and, 659–661

X-ray spectromicroscopy, 888–892

X-ray spectrum images (XSI), 248

X-ray tomography, soft, 885

X-ray transmission spectromicroscopy, of polymers,

899

X-ray zone plates, hard, 859–861

XSI. See X-ray spectrum images

X-STM. See Cross-sectional scanning tunneling

microscopy

Yeast cells, frozen, BSE micrographs of, 218

Yeast, frozen hydrated, single projection image of,

895

Z-contrast imaging, 311

Zeolite FAU, secondary electron micrograph of, 219

Zernike phase contrast

coherence in, 884

of integrated circuits, 900

intrinsic amplitude and, in protein, 876

TXM, 869

schematic drawing of, 869

Zero-loss ﬁ ltering, inﬂ uence of, 570

Zero-loss (ZL) peak, 100

from monochromators, 309

ZL peak. See Zero-loss peak

Zn impurity, quasiparticle density of states around,

1132

Zone plate(s)

condenser, 856–858

efﬁ ciency

Fresnel zone plates and, 851–853

idealized structures and, 851–853

real structures and, 852–853

fabrication techniques for, 853–855

schematic drawing of, 855

hard X-ray, 859–861

image quality of

aberration size and, 849

astigmatism/ﬁ eld curvature and, 849–850

coma and, 850

Fresnel zone plates and, 846–850

optical path function analysis and, 846–847

I26 Index

Zone plate(s) (cont.)

ray aberrations and, 847

spherical aberration, 847–849

orders number of, 845

resolution-determining zone plates and, 855–856

with shaped grooves, 859

thick, 861–862

transparency function, of one period, 851

types of, efﬁ ciency of, 852

zone of, 844

Zone plate microscopes, table of, 864–865

Zone plate X-ray microscopes

background on, 835–836

focusing optics of, 840–843

Fresnel zone plates and, 844–862

introduction to, 835–846

overview/recent trends in, 842–843

principles/applications of, 836–906

X-ray interactions and, 836–839

Zr on Ta cathode, image of, 419