Hawkes P.W., Spence J.C.H. (Eds.) Science of Microscopy. V.1 and 2

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Index I7

Domain images, of in-plane magnetization, 690

Domain wall motion, in ferroelectrics, 485

Dopant imaging, by X-STM, 1015

Dopant potentials, in semiconductors, electrostatic

ﬁ eld measurement and, 1173–1182

Double reﬂ ection electron emission microscope

(DREEM), 618

Double-walled nanotube (DWNT)

electron microdiffraction pattern from, 1215

simultaneous structure analysis of, 504

Doubly symmetric electrostatic corrector (DECO), of

spherical/chromatic aberration, 721

DPPTE. See

1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphothioethanol

DQE. See Detector quantum efﬁ ciency

DREEM. See Double reﬂ ection electron emission

microscope

DSP. See Digital signal processor

DTEM. See Dynamic transmission electron

microscope

Dual-axis tilting, for Cryo-ET, 559–560

DWNT. See Double-walled nanotube

Dynamic surface processes, STM and, 998–1003

Dynamic transmission electron microscope (DTEM),

406

anatomy of, 407–414

applications for, 433–435

future developments for, 435–436

image quality simulation, 411

image resolution for, 423–428

lasers for, 419–421

limitations of, 421–433

photo of, 408

photoelectron guns for, 414–419

pulse compression and, 435–436

relativistic beams and, 436

sample damage with, 428–433

technologies of, 407–421

time resolution for, 421–423

TU Berlin, 409

ultrafast electron diffraction timeline development

with, 434

EBIC. See Electron beam-induced current

EBIV. See Electron beam-induced voltage

EBSD. See Electron backscattered diffraction

ECP. See Electron channeling pattern

Edge shapes

of EELS, 326–329

labels and, for elements, 382

schematic drawing of, 326

Edge signals, extrapolation of, 344

EDS. See Energy-dispersive spectroscopy

EDXS. See Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

EELM. See Electron energy loss microscopy

EELS. See Electron energy loss spectroscopy

EFTEM. See Energy-ﬁ ltered transmission electron

microscopy

Einstein phonon dispersion, 93

Elastic cross sections, 312–314

Elastic electron scattering, inelastic electron

scattering and, 310–312

Elastic vacuum tunneling, STM and, 970–972

Elastic/inelastic electron tunneling, band diagrams

for, 973

Elastic/inelastic tunneling channels, 1114

Elastic/plastic deformation, in situ TEM, 486–500

Elastic/total inelastic angular scattering

distributions, 316

Electric insulators, ESEM and, 135

Electrical measurement

on nanostructures, 503–504

on TEM samples, 500–503

Electrochemical cell, copper deposition using, 510

electrochemical deposition, 507–509

Electrode geometry, of symmetric unipotential lens,

667

Electromagnetic lenses, 146

Electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD), 134

crystal structure analysis by, 252–257

patterns, from as-cast niobium specimen, 255

Electron beam, broadening of, 356

Electron beam-induced current (EBIC), SEM and,

192–193

Electron beam-induced phenomena, 510–517

atmosphere interaction and, 511

point defects formation/clustering and, 511–513

Electron beam-induced voltage (EBIV), 192

Electron beam-specimen interaction, with LEEM,

606–613

Electron channeling pattern (ECP), 193, 253

Electron conﬁ nement

on nanoscale hexagonal Ag islands, 1092

in SWCNTs, 1093

Electron detectors, 148–152

strategies with, 152–154

types of, 150

Electron diffraction, dynamic models of, 90

Electron emission, schematic energy distribution of,

166

Electron energy loss microscopy (EELM), 606

Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), 68, 97–107,

280

AEM and, 273

analysis/quantiﬁ cation limitations in, 346–347

background in, 330–331

of Ca, 374

convergence correction and, 344–346

detection limits, 379–381

of edge shapes, 326–329

edges, background extrapolation of, 342

full spectrum for, 279

inelastic electron scattering and, 99–101

mapping of, 362–374

microanalysis, energy-ﬁ ltered microscopy and,

353–358

model-based quantiﬁ cation of, 343

near-edge structure and, 385

overview of, 278–280

parallel spectrometer, schematic drawing of, 305

I8 Index

Electron energy loss spectroscopy (cont.)

quantiﬁ cation in, 341–347

quantiﬁ cation procedures in, 341–344

quantitative imaging with, 366–370

schematic drawing of, 279

signals, spatial localization of, 101–104

spectrometer designs of, 98–99

spectrometers and, 301–307

spectrum information from, 281

spectrum schematic of, 100

Electron guns

characteristic parameters of, 145

HRTEM and, 209–221

SEM and, 143–145

Electron hole pairs, 192

Electron holography, 1141–1190

alternative forms of, 1184–1189

analysis and, 1151–1153

Co nanoparticle chains in, 1153–1156

Co nanoparticle rings and, 1157–1160

Co nanowires and, 1167–1168

cross-sectional specimens and, 1169–1171

digital acquisition and, 1151–1153

discussion on, 1189–1190

distortion correction procedure in, 1146

electrostatic ﬁ eld measurement in, 1172–1182

experimental considerations with, 1145–1148

FeNi nanopartcle chains and, 1160–1161

high-resolution, 1182–1184

introduction to, 1141–1148

lithographically patterned magnetic

nanostructures and, 1164–1167

magnetic ﬁ eld measurement in, 1151–1172

magnetic/mean inner potential contributions in,

separation of, 1156–1171

magnetite nanoparticle chains and, 1157

mean interior potential and, 1148–1150

micromagnetic simulations in, 1171–1172

montage of, 1169

NdFeB hard magnets in, 1153

off-axis, basis of, 1141–1148

phase proﬁ le plotting in, 1149

quantitative measurements in, 1171–1172

recording setup diagram for, 1173

resolution in, 1171–1172

sample thickness measurement and, 1148–1150

space charge layers, at grain boundaries, 1182

Electron intensity dispersion, real space intensity

plots of, 316

Electron interference, in Pb, 1012

Electron lens aberrations, in PEEM, 673

Electron lenses

HRSEM and, FESEM and, 211

SEM and, 145–148

Electron microdiffraction pattern, from double-

walled nanotube, 1215

Electron microscopy (EM), 535

applicability domains of, 1218

transfer functions of, 1233

Electron mirror, aberration corrected microscope

using, 674–675

Electron optical conﬁ guration

of AEM, 290–293

of illumination system, 291

of PEEM, schematic drawing of, 664

for STEM, 292

Electron optics

column design and, 109–113

for Cryo-ET, 561

LEEM and, 619–624

new developments in, 310

Electron probe current

in SEM, 147

variation in, 288

Electron probe size, variation in, 288

Electron rays, in OL, 667

Electron sources

for HRTEM, 30

for STEM, 114–117

Electron sources/probes, for AEM, 282–290

Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA)

microscopy, 903

Electron trajectories, of Monte Carlo simulation,

167

Electron tunneling, schematic energy diagram of,

1098

Electron tunneling, hot, schematic energy diagram

of, 1099

Electronic samples, broadening of, 350

Electronic structure, LT-STM and, 1082–1105

Electronic structure/bonding environment, ELNES

and, 278

Electron-specimen interaction, 182

signal generation and, 163–182

Electroscan environmental scanning electron

microscope, schematic cross section of, 239

Electrostatic correction, of chromatic aberration,

722–723

Electrostatic ﬁ eld measurement

in electron holography, 1172–1182

ﬁ eld-emitting carbon nanotubes and, 1172–1173

semiconductors and, dopant potentials in,

1173–1182

Electrostatic potential, power series expansions of,

729–730

Electrostatic potential distribution

in semiconductor device structure, 1175

simulations of, 1179

Elemental mapping

for AEM, 358–374

color-coded, 359

of EDXS, 358–362

of NiAl multilayer, 361

of Ni-based alloy, 360

Elements, edge shapes for, labels and, 382

Element-speciﬁ c imaging, 995–996

with atomic resolution, 996

Elevated pressure, SEM at, 237–244

Elevation angle/foil thickness, absorption length

dependence on, 336

Elliptically polarizing undulators (EPU), 659

ELNES. See Energy loss near-edge structure

Index I9

EM. See Electron microscopy

Embedded nanostructures, size-dependent

transformations in, 458–460

Emitted secondary electron, energy distribution of,

660

Energy dependence

of attenuation coefﬁ cients µ,ν, 610

of backscattering, 608

of elastic mean free electron path, of Xe, 611

of inelastic mean free electron path, of Au, 610

of inelastic mean free electron path of Fe

, 612

resolution and, 621

Energy dispersion measurements, LT-STM and,

1086–1090

Energy distribution, of emitted secondary electron,

660

Energy electron distribution, chromatic correction

and, 709

Energy ﬁ lter, for Cryo-ET, 566–570

Energy ﬁ lters, for HRTEM, 35–36

Energy level diagrams, 275

of sample/tip, 1072

Energy level quanta, 275

Energy loss ﬁ ne structures, 384–399

Energy loss near-edge structure (ELNES), 101,

385–392

calculation examples of, 391, 392

electronic structure/bonding environment and,

278

regions/energy ranges for, 384

shape, multiple inelastic losses and, 399

Energy loss spectra, diagram of, 281

Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), 107

spectrum, 276

Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDXS), 68,

134, 280

AEM and, 273

background in, 330–331

detection limits for, 375–377

detector, 293

diagram of, 294

schematic drawing of, 293

detector front, schematic drawing of, 295

detector interface, 300

detector windows for, 295–297

detector/signal processing artifacts, 298–299

elemental mapping, 358–362

features of, 249

geometry of, 299–300

instrument contributions in, 377–379

microanalysis of, 331–347, 348–353

overview of, 274–277

peak shapes and, 297–298

peak/background intensities in, 376

quantiﬁ cation in, 331–335

elemental maps of, 352

Energy-ﬁ ltered electron diffraction pattern, of

Si(110), 307

Energy-ﬁ ltered electron microscopes, schematic

drawing of, 302

Energy-ﬁ ltered image, of Al alloy, 354

Energy-ﬁ ltered microscopy, EELS microanalysis and,

353–358

Energy-ﬁ ltered scanning transmission microscope,

985

Energy-ﬁ ltered transmission electron microscopy

(EFTEM), 105

elemental mapping

expected resolution of, 373

spatial resolution of, 371–374

imaging approaches, 363

mapping, 362–365

spectrum imaging technique for, 364

Energy/ﬂ uorescence yields, for K/L edge emission,

838

Environmental scanning electron microscope

(ESEM), 237–238

electric insulators and, 135

secondary electron micrograph with, 242

Environmental science applications, for X-ray

microscopes, 896–897

Environmental secondary electron detector (ESD),

240

Epiﬂ uorescence micrographs, visible light and, 898

Epitaxial Fe ribbon crystals, on W(110), 647

Epitaxial/polycrystalline thin ﬁ lm growth, 472–474

EPU. See Elliptically polarizing undulators

Equipotential contours, of PEEM, objective lens, 666

Equivalent optical conﬁ guration, for confocal setup,

757

ER algorithm. See Error-reduction algorithm

Error-reduction (ER) algorithm, 1199

ESCA microscopy. See Electron spectroscopy for

chemical analysis microscopy

ESD. See Environmental secondary electron detector

ESEM. See Environmental scanning electron

microscope

ETD. See Everhart-Thornley detector

Eukaryotic cell, ET of, 545

Everhart-Thornley detector (ETD), 149, 186, 187

BSE and, 187

schematic drawing of, 151

topographic contrast and, 184

EXAFS. See Extended X-ray absorption ﬁ ne

structure

Excitation supports, comparison of, 797

Exit-plane wavefunction, reconstructed modulus of,

Exit-wave reconstruction

of complex oxides, 48–51

experimental geometries and, 47–48

HRTEM and, 43–51

theory of, 44–47

Expected edges, summary of, 329

Experimental geometries, exit-wave reconstruction

and, 47–48

Expitaxially strained materials, relaxation of,

493–495

Extended X-ray absorption ﬁ ne structure (EXAFS),

101

External voltage application, schematic drawing of,

1177

I10 Index

Fabrication techniques, for zone plate, 853–855

Fabry-Perot resonator, 1085

Far ﬁ eld ﬂ uorescence microscopy, nanoscale

resolution in, 790–829

Fast high-voltage switches, 414

Fe atoms, in circular quantum corral, 1091

Fe ﬁ lm, quantum size contrast of, 629

Fe islands, magnetic vortex states on, 1127

Fe stripe domain structure, in Fe/Ni/Cu(001), 681

Fe-Co alloy layer, spin reorientation transition in,

646

FEGs. See Field-emission guns

FeNi nanopartcle chains

chemical map of, 1161

electron holography and, 1160–1161

Fe/Ni/Cu(001), Fe stripe domain structure in, 681

Fermi contour imaging

of Be(0001), 1105

of Be(1010), 1105

LT-STM and, 1104–1105

Fern fossil

backscattered electron micrograph of, 205

secondary electron micrograph of, 205

Ferroelectrics

domain wall motion in, 485

switching, 483–485

Ferromagnetic domains, imaging of, 680–681

Ferromagnetic materials, magnetic domain

structure/motion in, 476–481

Ferromagnets, linear dichroism imaging of,

685–686

FESEM. See Field-emission scanning electron

microscopy

FET. See Field effect transistor

FFP. See Front-focal plane

FIB. See Focused ion beam

Fibroblast, human, with immunogold labeling, 893

Fibroblast imaged, in frozen-hydrated state, 893

Field effect transistor (FET), 295

Field ion microscopy (FIM), 974

Field-emission electron gun, schematic drawing of,

286

Field-emission guns (FEGs), 112, 117, 134, 1141

schematic drawing of, 210

Field-emission scanning electron microscopy

(FESEM), 134, 209

contrast formation and, 212–214

detection geometries and, 211

detectors and, 211

HRSEM and

electron guns and, 209–210

electron lenses and, 211

modern high-resolution, 135

resolution and, 212–214

specimen stages and, 212

Field-emitting carbon nanotubes, electrostatic ﬁ eld

measurement and, 1172–1173

50eV electrons, angular distribution of, 607

FIM. See Field ion microscopy

Finite element calculation (FEM), 33

Finite source size, STEM and, 118–119

FITC. See Fluoresceine isothiocyanate

Fixed 3T3 cell, AFM image of, 1049

FLM. See Fluorescence light microscopy

Fluoresceine, 178

Fluoresceine isothiocyanate (FITC), 178

Fluorescence, 754–755

correction, 340

deﬁ nition of, 339

focal spot, STED and, 822

yield, of X-rays, 180

Fluorescence light microscopy (FLM), 149

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), 1049

Fluorescent dyes, multiple excitation of, 775

Fluorescent molecules

under TPE regime, 765–767

two-photon cross sections for, 767

Fly head/eye, micrograph of, 142

FM-AFM. See Frequency-modulated atomic force

microscope

Focus depth, of SEM, 142

Focused ion beam (FIB)

of color ﬁ lm, secondary electron micrograph of,

200

SEM and, 196, 197, 200

of tyre, secondary electron micrograph of, 200

Focusing optics, of zone plate X-ray microscopes,

840–843

Foil correctors, aberration correctors and, 716–718

Foil lens, schematic drawing of, 717

Force dependent surface tomography, of

bacteriohodopsin, 1036

Force v. distance curve, 1034

with DLVO force, 1039

Force v. penetration depth, parameter plot of, 1035

4Pi-microscopy

lobe removal/deconvolution in, 807

OTF of, 799–803

Fourier domain, schematic sectors of, 558

Fourier optics treatment, partial incoherence and,

878–880

Fourier space, density problem sampling in,

illustration of, 581

Fourier transform spectroscopy, on Bi

CaCu

8+δ

991

Free-standing nanoparticles, phase transformations/

sintering in, 461–463

Frequency response

of closed feedback loop, in AFM, 1045

of commercial scanner, 1044

of silicon nitride cantilever, 1044

Frequency space, OTF and, 793

Frequency-dependent oscillator strength, for on/

gold, 837

Frequency-modulated atomic force microscope

(FM-AFM)

of GaAs<110>, 940–942

NC-AFM and, 935–937

of semiconductors, 940–942

of Si, 940–942

Index I11

Fresnel zone plates

introduction to, 844–846

zone plate efﬁ ciency and, 851–853

zone plate image quality and, 846–850

zone plate X-ray microscopes and, 844–862

FRET. See Fluorescence resonance energy transfer

Front-focal plane (FFP), 70

Frozen-hydrated state, whole ﬁ broblast imaged in,

893

Full width at half-maximum (FWHM), 72, 73

of confocal PSFs, 759

Functionalized tip, chemical contrast with, 1109

FWHM. See Full width at half-maximum

Ga thermometer, 451

GaAs(110)

ADF detector images, 95

bias-dependent STM on, 986

FM-AFM of, 940–942

local normalized conductance spectra on, 987

Gaseous secondary electron detector (GSED), 240

Gaussian distribution functions, 16

Gd, spectrum imaging for, 105

Gd(0001), spin-polarized STM on, 992

2D to 3D morphology transition of, 981

STM imaging of, 979

Ge(105), surface structure identiﬁ cation of, 1019

Ge island nucleation, 473

General oscillator strength (GOS)

angular/energy dependence of, 321–323

two-dimensional angular/energy distribution,

322

Germanium test pattern, amplitude/phase contrast

images of, 873

Ge/Si (105), atomic resolution, NC-AFM/STM/KFM

on, 959

Glass knife, secondary electron micrograph of, 234

Glass micropipette, secondary electron micrograph

of, 233

Gold(100), lower bound of standard deviation for,

1257

Gold balls

SEM image of, 1213

soft X-ray transmission diffraction pattern from,

1212

Goniometer

for HRTEM, 34–35

tilt stage, for Cryo-ET, 562–563

GOS. See General oscillator strength

Grain boundaries, at space charge layers, in electron

holography, 1182

Grain boundary motion, grain growth and, 453

Grain growth

grain boundary motion and, 453

phase transformations and, 448, 452

Graphite, NC-AFM of, 943

Growth process, 513–514

GSED. See Gaseous secondary electron detector

Gun anodes, 286

H atmosphere, dislocation in, 492

Hard X-ray zone plates, 859–861

aberration, size of, 849

image of, 860

Helicoidal biological sample, 3D views of, 762

Heterostructures, buried interfaces and, 1007–1016

HFEG. See Hot ﬁ eld emission gun

HfO

, from magnetic tunnel junction, off-axis

electron holography and, 1170

High energy incident electrons, signals from, 274

High speed electron microscopy, 406–437

uses of, 406

High vacuum (HV), 135

High-energy X-rays, depth-of-focus limit and, in x-

ray microscopes, 887–888

Higher-order Laue zone (HOLZ), 93

High-resolution constant height images, of CaF

944

High-resolution electron holography, 1182–1184

High-resolution micrographs

of aluminum oxide, 221

of PVME, 221

High-resolution scanning electron microscopy

(HRSEM)

with FESEM, 213

FESEM and, 209–221

electron lenses and, 211

selected applications of, 214–221

High-resolution transmission electron microscopy

(HRTEM), 3

aberration correctors and, 39–42

advances in, 5

of aluminum crystal, 1249, 1250

axial diffractograms images from, 20

coherence and, 26–29

detectors and, 36–39

diffractogram measurements and, 21–22

electron guns and, 209–221

electron sources for, 29–31

physical properties of, 30

energy ﬁ lters for, 35–36

essential theory of, 8–29

exit-wave reconstruction and, 43–51

future prospects on, 57–58

goniometer for, 34–35

historical summary of, 6–8

image formation and, 8–13

optical ray diagram schematic of, 9

image simulation of, 51–57

information limit of, 14

instrumentation for, 29–43

isoplanatic aberration coefﬁ cients in, 18

of lattice matched heterojunction between InP

and As, 5

monochromators and, 40, 42–43

of nanocrystaline gold particle, 6

nanoscale materials and, 5

optics for, 32–34

PCD and, 12

PCTF and, 14

I12 Index

High-resolution transmission electron microscopy

(cont.)

photo of, 4

POA and, 9

prevalence of, 3

resolution limits of, 13–17

specimen stages for, 34–35

spherical aberration and, 32

statistical experimental design of, 1256–1258

studies on, 3–5

TCC and, 27–28

tilt-induced displacements and, 21

twins, stacking faults image from, 4

wave aberration function and, 17–26

WPOA and, 10

HIO algorithm. See Hybrid input-output algorithm

Histogram, of CCC, 586

Hologram reconstruction, 1143–1145

HOLZ. See Higher-order Laue zone

Homoepitaxial growth, of Si(100), 633

Hot ﬁ eld-emission gun (HFEG), 210

HRSEM. See High-resolution scanning electron

microscopy

HRTEM. See High-resolution transmission electron

microscopy

HV. See High vacuum

Hybrid input-output (HIO) algorithm

diffractive imaging and, 1199–1200, 1205–1211

variants of, 1205–1211

Idealized structures, zone plate efﬁ ciency and,

851–853

IETS. See Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy

ILDOS. See Integrated local density of states

Illumination system, electron optical conﬁ guration

and, 291

Image contrast, 883

in XPEEM, 661–663

Image interpretation, tip and, 937–939

Image resolution, for DTEM, 423–428

Image simulation

of HRTEM, 51–57

multislice formalism and, 52–57

Imaging buried heterostructures, cross-sectional

STM and, 1013–1016

Imaging modes, of AFM, 1046–1048

Imaging radiation dose, for protein features, 840

Imaging-to-diffraction mode, in STEM column,

110–112

Immunogold labeling, human ﬁ broblast, 893

Implants, investigation of, 207

“In lens” detection, 154

schematic drawing of, 155

In situ imaging, of catalysts, 468

In situ indentation/straining, of thin ﬁ lms,

495–496

In situ transmission electron microscopy, 445–516

catalysis and, 466–467

deﬁ nition of, 445–447

elastic/plastic deformation in, 486–500

future outlook for, 517–518

grain boundary dynamics in, 452

magnetic/ferroelectric/superconducting materials

in, 476–486

phase transformations and, 447–462

crystallization and, 448–449

grain growth and, 448, 452

melting and, 448–449

in nanostructured materials, 458–463

structural phase transitions in, 453–457

superconducting materials in, 481–483

surface reactions and, crystal growth, 463–476

Incoherent illumination, with TXM, schematic

drawing of, 877

Incoherent imaging, 103

CTEM and, 84–90

v. beam current, 119

Incoherent optical transfer function, plot of, 121

In-column energy ﬁ ltered microscope, schematic

drawing of, 304

In-column spectrometer conﬁ gurations, 303

Inelastic electron scattering

diagram of, 319

EELS and, 99–101

elastic electron scattering and, 310–312

localization of, 358

processes of, 312

Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy (IETS),

993

local, 1114–1119

Inelastic imaging, spatial localization of, 101–104

Inelastic mean free electron path, of Au, energy

dependence and, 610

Inelastic mean free electron path of Fe

, energy

dependence of, 612

Inelastic scattering cross sections, 314–320

Inelastic tunneling, vibrational spectroscopy and,

993–994

Inelastic vacuum tunneling, 973

Information limit, of HRTEM, 14

In-plane magnetization, domain images of, 690

Instrument noise, in AFM, 1045–1046

Instrumentation

for AEM, 282–300

for AFM, 1030–1052

for Cryo-ET, 550, 560–576

for HRTEM, 29–43

of LEEM, 614–619

for SPLEEM, 614–619

for STM, 975–976

Integrated circuits

studies in, 901

tomographic imaging of, 901

with vertical cross sections, 198

Zernike phase contrast of, 900

Integrated local density of states (ILDOS), 1071

oscillations, bias-dependent evolution of, 1087

Interfaces/grain boundaries, geometry analysis for,

338

Interference detection, with ADF detector, 86

Index I13

Interferometric TXM image, of polystyrene spheres,

900

Intermediate layer, hexagonally packed, 1056

Intermediate/projective lens, on PEEM, 666–668

Intermittent contact atomic force microscope, 930

Intermittent contact mode, of AFM, 1047–1048

Intermixing, in small particles, 462

Intrinsic amplitude, Zernike phase contrast and, in

protein, 876

Inverse photoemisson spectroscopy (IPES), 1082,

1120

Ion dependence, of DLVO force, 1054

Ion implantation, 514–515

Ion/electron beam-induced processes, 510–517

Ions at solid-liquid interfaces, speciﬁ c interaction of,

1038

IPES. See Inverse photoemisson spectroscopy

Iron oxide clusters, XPEEM image of, 662

Irradiation damage, 513

Isoplanatic aberration coefﬁ cients

accuracy of, 19

in HRTEM, 18

Isoplanatic approximation, 17

K edges, trends in, 327

AFe

, experimental factors of, 334

KBr, NC-AFM of, 943–944

Kelvin force microscopy (KFM), 946

of Σ5 grain boundary n SrTiO

(100), 949

Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM), 945

Keratinocyte, secondary electron micrograph of,

236

K-factor approach, 346

KFM. See Kelvin force microscopy

K/L edge emission, energy/ﬂ uorescence yields for,

838

Kondo effect, LT-STM and, 1102–1104

Kondo resonance, spectroscopic signature of, 1103

KPFM. See Kelvin probe force microscopy

Kramer’s constant, 179

edge, trends in, 328

La B

. See Lanthanum hexaboride

La FeO

, magnetic contrast in, 683

Lander molecule

chemical structure of, 1110

on Cu(111) surface column, 1111

Langmuir-Blodgett ﬁ lms, AFM and, 1056–1057

Lanthanum hexaboride (La B

), 144

Large detector incoherent, BF STEM, 82

Large-area atom-resolved, STM, 981

Laser(s)

for DTEM, 419–421

sources, for TPE, 773

Laser emission time scale, for TPE, 773

Laser scanning microscopy (LSM), 1049

confocal principles and, 755–757

Laser-synchrotron, pulse sequence in, 687

Lateral atom manipulation, mechanisms of, 1004

Latex-beads, tapping mode imaging of, 1048

Lattice displacements, in crystal strain, 93

Lattice imaging, in BF STEM, 79–81

Lattice matched heterojunction between InP/As,

HRTEM of, 5

Lattice mismatch strain, during Si

1-x

/Si(001)

heteropitaxy, 982

LCD. See Liquid crystal display

LCF. See Local cross-correlation function

LDOS. See Local density of states

Leaf cuticula, secondary electron micrograph of,

237

LEED. See Low-energy electron diffraction

LEELM. See Low-electron energy loss microscopy

LEEM. See Low-energy electron microscopy

Lens aberrations, 33

Lens-free imaging, depth-of-focus limit and, in

x-ray microscopes, 888

Lensless imaging. See Diffractive imaging

LHe continuous-ﬂ ow cryostat, STM with, 1074–1076

Lifetime measurements, LT-STM and, 1093–1100

Linear dichroism

imaging, of ferromagnets, 685–686

magnetic circular and, 678–680

Lipid raft, size/temporal stability of, 1064

Liquid crystal display (LCD), 139

Liquid ﬁ lm, imaging under, 506–507

Liquid phase processes, 505–510

reaction in situ, 508

Lithographed letters, soft X-ray transmission

diffraction pattern from, 1211

Lithographically patterned magnetic

nanostructures, electron holography and,

1164–1167

Lobe removal/deconvolution, in 4pi microscopy,

807

Local cross-correlation function (LCF), 585

Local density of states (LDOS), 1071

oscillations, 1082–1086

on Ag(111), 1089

bias-dependent evolution of, 1087

Local element analysis, 134

Local impedance spectra, Cole-Cole plot of, 953

Local inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy,

1114–1119

Local I-V measurements, current imaging tunneling

spectroscopy, 986–989

Local magnetic induction, phase contours of, 1162

Local normalized conductance spectra, on

GaAs(110), 987

Locally probing macromolecular, cellular samples

and, 1058–1064

Lorentz image, of NdFeB hard magnets, 1154

Low magniﬁ cation bright-ﬁ eld image, of self-

assembled Co nanoparticle, 1159

Low vacuum (LV), 135

Low voltage scanning electron microscope (LVSEM),

148, 221–237

contrast formation for, 225–226

detectors/detection strategies for, 225

selected applications for, 226–237

I14 Index

Low-electron energy loss microscopy (LEELM), 615

Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED), 605

spot movements, drawing of, 627

Low-energy electron microscopy (LEEM), 605–647

applications of, 630–642

background on, 630–631

beam separator for, 622

cathode lenses conﬁ gurations for, 620

commercial instrument of, 616

contrast mechanisms with, 624–630

cross section of, 616

electron beam-specimen interaction with,

606–613

electron optics and, 619–624

ﬂ ange-on, schematic drawing of, 617

instrument schematic of, 614

instrumentation for, 614–619

lenses resolution for, 620

metal layers on metals and, 639–640

metal surface reactions and, 640–641

metal surfaces in, 638–639

nitrides and, 641

oxides and, 641

phase contrast imaging in, conditions for, 628

Si(100) and, 632–634

Si(111) surface with, 631–632

Lower bound of standard deviation

distance measurement of, 1247

of gold(100), 1257

for spherical aberration, 1256

Low-loss region, 100

Low-loss spectroscopy, 393–399

applications of, 394–399

fundamentals of, 393–394

variation example of, 396

Low-temperature scanning tunneling microscopy

(LT-STM), 1070–1132

Abrikosov ﬂ ux lattice and, 1130

applications of, 1081–1132

design drawing of, 1080

design principle illustration of, 1081

design principles of, 1073–1081

electronic structure and, 1082–1105

energy dispersion measurements and, 1086–1090

Fermi contour imaging and, 1104–1105

Kondo effect and, 1102–1104

lifetime measurements and, 1093–1100

magnetic atoms at surfaces and, 1102–1104

schematic drawing of, 1079

single atom and, molecule manipulation,

1105–1114

SP-STM and, 1125–1132

stark effect and, 1100–1101

STM-induced photo emission and, 1119–1125

superconductivity and, 1129–1132

Low/variable-temperature STM, photo of, 1077

LSM. See Laser scanning microscopy

LT-STM. See Low-temperature scanning tunneling

microscopy

Lutetium, cluster analysis of, 898

LV. See Low vacuum

LVSEM. See Low voltage scanning electron

microscope

Macromolecular complexes, identiﬁ cation strategies

of, 584

Macromolecular samples, for AFM, 1053–1057

Macromolecules, detection/identiﬁ cation of, 584

Magnetic atoms at surfaces, LT-STM and,

1102–1104

Magnetic circular, linear dichroism and, 678–680

Magnetic contrast

in La FeO

, 683

scheme of type-1, 195

SEM and, 194–195

types of, 194–195

Magnetic detection of electrons, schematic drawing

of, 154

Magnetic domain imaging, 678–686

of Co/NiO, 683

Magnetic domain structure/motion, in

ferromagnetic materials, 476–481

Magnetic ﬁ elds

early experiments in, 1151

measurement, in electron holography, 1151–1172

Magnetic force microscopy (MFM), 1126

Magnetic materials

applications of, for X-ray microscopes, 903–905

phase transformations in, 482

phase transitions in, 480–481

Magnetic random access memory (MRAM), 678

Magnetic vortex states, on Fe islands, 1127, 1128

Magnetic/ferroelectric/superconducting materials,

for in situ transmission electron microscopy,

476–486

Magnetic/mean inner potential contributions,

separation of, 1156–1171

Magnetite nanoparticle chains, electron holography

and, 1157

Magnetization reversal, of Co/LaFeO

, 684

Magnetooptical Kerr effect (MOKE) microscopy,

1126

Magnetotactic microorganism, cellular cryo-ET of,

543

Magniﬁ cation calibration, for SEM, 162–163

MAL. See Maximum likelihood

Manganese nodule, chemical imaging of, 663

Material contrast, SEM and, 189–191

Materials science

applications, of X-ray microscopy, 897–903

scanning probe microscopy in, 929–960

Maximum likelihood (MAL), 46

estimation/resolution and, 1248–1252

MDFF. See Mixed dynamic form factor

Mean interior potential

electron holography and, 1148–1150

phase contours of, 1158

of representative materials, in volts, 10

Mean ionization potential, Bethe stopping power

and, for carbon/protein, 206

Index I15

Mechanical decoupling, of copper braid, 1075

Melting, phase transformations and, 448–449

MEM. See Mirror electron microscopy

MEMS. See Microelectromechanical systems

Metal layers on metals, LEEM and, 639–640

Metal surfaces

in LEEM, 638–639

reactions of, LEEM and, 640–641

Metal-induced crystallization, 449

Metallic emitters, photoelectron guns and, 417–419

Metastable impact electron emission microscopy

(MIEEM), 618, 642

MFM. See Magnetic force microscopy

Microanalysis

detection limits in, 374–384

resolution in, 348

in SEM, 246–252

Microchannel plate detector, 151

Micro-diffraction pattern, 73

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), 207

Micromagnetic simulations, in electron holography,

1171–1172

Microscopic phenomenon, during deformation,

487–493

Microtechnology, 207

Microtubulis, in vitreous ice, imaging of, 568

MIEEM. See Metastable impact electron emission

microscopy

MIMAPI. See Multiple input maximum a posteriori

Mirror correctors, 725–726

Mirror electron microscopy (MEM), 606

Mixed dynamic form factor (MDFF), 102

Mixed quadrupole correctors, chromatic aberration

correctors and, 719–723

Modulation transfer function (MTF), 37, 878

CCD cameras and, 40

formula for, 38

NTFs and, 37

of PEEM, 670

for STXM imaging, 878

MOKE microscopy. See Magnetooptical Kerr effect

microscopy

Molecular conformation identiﬁ cation, of Cu-DTBPP,

1019

Molecular ﬂ uorescence, 1122

Molecular vibrational spectra, with STM, 1117

Molecular wavefunctions, in carbon nanotube,

1095

Molecular wire contact, to step, 1111

Molecule cascades, 1005

Molecule manipulation, single atom and, LT-STM

and, 1105–1114

Monatomic steps, on MO(101) surface, 627

Monochromators, 307–308

HRTEM and, 42–43

implementations of, 308

visibility peak from, 309

ZL peak from, 309

Monte Carlo simulation, of electron trajectories, 167

MO(101) surface, monatomic steps on, 627

MRAM. See Magnetic random access memory

MTF. See Modulation transfer function

Multilayered ﬁ lm in situ, magnetization of, 479

Multiphase/composite/layered materials,

deformation of, 490–493

Multiple inelastic losses, on ELNES shape, 399

Multiple input maximum a posteriori (MIMAPI),

Multislice algorithm, schematic diagram of, 52–57

Multislice formalism

image simulation and, 52–57

phonon scattering and, 92

Multispecimen chamber/cartridges, 564

Multiwalled nanotube (MWNT), 504

MWNT. See Multiwalled nanotube

Nanobelt, mechanical properties of, 499

Nanocrystalline gold particle, HRTEM of, 6

Nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), 221

Nanoimpedance microscopy (NIM), 952

Nanoindentation, of steel, 496

Nanomanipulation, tribology and, 497–498

Nanoparticle melting, 459

Nanoscale materials, HRTEM and, 5

Nanoscale resolution, in far ﬁ eld ﬂ uorescence

microscopy, 790–829

Nanosecond multiframe operation, 407

Nanostructured materials, phase transformations

in, 458–463

Nanostructures

beam-vapor interaction and, 512

electrical measurement on, 503–504

mechanical properties of, 495–500, 498–500

from surface mobility, 466

“Nanotip” models, in scanning probe microscopy,

938–939

Nanowires

electrical properties of, 505

self-assembly of, at step edges, 1112

Nb M

edges, Ba M

edges and, 330

NC-AFM. See Noncontact atomic force microscope

NdFeB hard magnets

in electron holography, 1153

Lorentz image of, 1154

Near ﬁ eld optical microscopy, 929

Near-carbon-edge absorption spectra, of amino

acids, 890

Near-edge structure

EELS and, 385

examples of, 386, 387

Near-ﬁ eld microwave microscopy (NFMM), 956

NEMS. See Nanoelectromechanical systems

Neuronal cell, 1029

NFMM. See Near-ﬁ eld microwave microscopy

Ni grain boundary, S segregation at, 351

NiAl, phase stability in, 454

NiAl multilayer, elemental mapping of, 361

Ni-based alloy, elemental mapping of, 360

Ni-Fe ﬁ lm, XMCD of, 905

NIM. See Nanoimpedance microscopy

I16 Index

Nion quadrupole-octopole corrector, schematic

drawing of, 712

NiS

/Si(001)<110> interface, ADF imaging of, 95

Nitrides, LEEM and, 641

Noise transfer functions (NTFs), 37

Noncontact atomic force microscope (NC-AFM),

930

AM-AFM and, 934–935

applications of, 939–944

block diagram of, 931

of CaF

, 943–944

of dielectrics, 943–944

FM-AFM and, 935–937

of graphite, 943

of KBr, 943–944

operational principles of, 930–933

of Si(100), 942

of Si(111), 936

of SrTiO

, 939–940

techniques of, 934–937

of TiO

(100), 941

Noncontact mode, of AFM, 1046–1047

Noncrystalline materials, ronchigrams of, 77–78

Nonpuriﬁ ed samples, imaging of, 589

Normal incidence specular reﬂ ectivity, of W(110)

surface, 608

NTFs. See Noise transfer functions

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 1027

Nucleation, surface step structure growth and, 631

Nyquist frequency, 56

-mediated diffusion, of oxygen vacancies, on

TiO

(110), 999

Object function, 89

Objective aperture, 80, 113

Objective lens (OL)

condenser and, 110

electron rays in, 667

of PEEM, 665

Objects, diffractive imaging and, 1201–1205

Off-axis electron holography

basis of, 1141–1148

of Co particles, 1155

from magnetic tunnel junction, of HfO

, 1170

ray diagram of, 1186

schematic drawing of, 1142

from thin crystal, 1144

OIM. See Orientation imaging microscopy

OL. See Objective lens

1s state for, Si(100)/gold(100), 1255

Operating environment, for STM, 973–975

Optical microscopy, AFM and, 1049–1050

Optical path function analysis, zone plate image

quality and, 846–847

Optical system, schematic drawing of, 725

Optical transfer function (OTF), 88, 791, 878

of 4Pi-microscopy, 799–803

excitation/detection/effective modulus overview

of, 800

frequency space and, 793

Optics, for HRTEM, 32–34

Orders number, of zone plates, 845

Orientation imaging microscopy (OIM), 255

OTF. See Optical transfer function

Outer shell excitations, 320

Oxidation

of block oxide structure, 470

of surface, 467–469

Oxides

LEEM and, 641

SPM of, 939, 940

Oxygen vacancies, of O

-mediated diffusion, on

TiO

(110), 999

Oxygen/CO, STM of, 1109

Parabolic mirrors, 152

Parallel electron energy-loss spectroscopy (PEELS),

Parallel pencil beam, 111

Parametric statistical models of observation,

statistical model-based resolution with,

1242–1244

Parasitic aberrations, 705–706

Partial coherence

contrast transfer and, 880–882

reciprocity and, 882

transfer functions, for 1D object, 881

in X-ray microscopes, 876–884

Partial incoherence, Fourier optics treatment and,

878–880

Partial volume, depth-of-focus limit and, in x-ray

microscopes, 886

Partial/total ionization cross sections, 323–325

Patterned substrates, crystal growth on, 474, 475,

476

Pb, electron interference in, 1012

Pb growth, on Si(111), 636

PbTiO

, vertical phase/amplitude hysteresis loops

of, 955

PCD. See Projected charge density

PCF. See Phase correlation function

PCF/PCI approach. See Phase correlation function/

phase contrast index function approach

PCTF. See Phase contrast transfer function

Pd atoms, diffusion kinetics of, 1002

Peak shapes, EDXS and, 297–298

Peak/background intensities, in EDXS, 376

PEELS. See Parallel electron energy-loss

spectroscopy

PEEM. See Photoemission electron microscopy

Periodic artifacts removal, through deconvolution,

803–807

Periodic dielectric constant, 958

PFM. See Piezoelectric force microscopy

Phase change materials, amorphous to crystalline

transformation in, 450

Phase component maps, STEM images and, 368

Phase contours

of local magnetic induction, 1162

of mean inner potential, 1158