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I1
Index
Ag atom triangle, images of, 1101
Ag islands, electron confi nement, 1092
Al alloy, energy-fi ltered image of, 354
Al fi lms, on Si(111), 636
Al
2
O
3
matrix, images of, 823
Alignment, Cryo-ET and, 576–577
All-electrostatic correctors, chromatic aberration
correctors and, 718–719
All-purpose correctors, 726–728
Aluminum crystal, HRTEM of, 1249, 1250, 1251
Aluminum oxide, high-resolution micrographs of,
221
AM-AFM. See Amplitude-modulated atomic force
microscope
Amino acids, near-carbon-edge absorption spectra
of, 890
Amorphization, phase transformations and, 448–449
Amorphous structure
with overlapping projected atoms, 1238
with separable projected atoms, 1238
Amorphous to crystalline transformation, in phase
change materials, 450
Amplitude-modulated atomic force microscope
(AM-AFM)
NC-AFM and, 934–935
topographic image with, 935
Amplitude/phase contrast images, of germanium
test pattern, 873
Analog-to-digital-converter (ADC), 158
Analytical electron microscopy (AEM), 273–399
EDXS and, 273
EELS and, 273
electron optical confi guration of, 290–293
electron sources/probes for, 282–290
fundamentals of, 310–331
instrumentation for, 282–300
sample holders for, 378
sample preparation requirements for, 308
source comparisons for, 285
TEM and, 273
A
n
B
n
O
3n+2
compounds, structural models of, 50
Aberration
coeffi cients, of tetrode mirror, 726
corrected microscope, using electron mirror,
674–675
corrected PEEM microscope
beam separator in, 675–677
resolution/transmission of, 677–678
correction, 696–731
introduction to, 696, 706–712
of PEEM microscopes, 671–677
STEM and, 123–125
by tetrode electron mirror, 676
correctors
foil correctors and, 716–718
HRTEM and, 39–42
sextupole correctors and, 715–716, 715–718
geometric, 697–706
phase shift, 71
resolution and, on uncorrected PEEM, 673
size, zone plate image quality and, 849
types of, 697–706
Abrikosov fl ux lattice, LT-STM and, 1130
Absorption, XPEEM and, 659–661
Absorption length dependence, on elevation angle/
Absorption limit, thickness criteria for, 337
Acceleration voltage/emission, for Cryo-ET, 560
Acceptance angle, resolution limit and, 621
Acridine orange, 178
Actin fi laments, AFM image of, 1032
ADC. See Analog-to-digital-converter
ADF detector. See Annular dark-fi eld detector
AE. See Auger electrons
AEEM. See Auger electron emission microscopy
AEM. See Analytical electron microscopy
AFM. See Atomic force microscope
Ag(111)
LDOS oscillations on, 1089
surface states on, 1086
Absorption path, for two sample confi gurations, 338
foil thickness, 336
quadrupole–octopole correctors and, 708–711
I2 Index
Angle/energy distributions, of SIMION simulations,
of emitted electrons, 669
Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy
(ARPES), 1082
Angular dependence, of partial cross sections, 324
Angular distribution, of 50eV electrons, 607
Angular/energy dependence, of the GOS, 321–323
Annealed surface, cooled surface and, 632
Annular dark-fi eld (ADF) detector, 68
images of thicker samples, 90–94
interference detection, 86
Annular dark-fi eld (ADF) detector scanning
transmission microscope image, of Si<112>,
125
Annular dark-fi eld (ADF) imaging, 82–97
availability of, 83–84
early analyses of, 91
of GaAs<110>, 95
introduction of, 83
of NiS
2
/Si(001)<110> interface, 95
of Pt atoms, 96
structure determination with, 94–95
Annular dark-fi eld (ADF) micrographs, of SE, 176
Antiferromagnetic domains
imaging of, 681–685
X-ray absorption spectra of, 682
Aperture diameter, 81
Aperture function, 71
Aplanatic corrector
of chromatic aberrations, 720
of spherical/chromatic aberration, 720
Applications
of DTEM, 433–435
of HRSEM, 214–221
of LEEM, 630–642
of low-loss spectroscopy, 394–399
of LT-STM, 1081–1132
of LVSEM, 226–237
of NC-AFM, 939–944
of SEM, 203
in life science, 203
of STM, 975–976
of VLVSEM, 226–237
of X-ray microscopy, 892–906
in biology, 892–895
in environmental science, 896–897
in magnetic materials, 903–905
in materials science, 897–903
of zone plate X-ray microscopes, 836–906
ARPES. See Angle-resolved photoemission
spectroscopy
As-cast niobium specimen, EBSD patterns from, 255
ASEM. See Atmospheric scanning electron
microscope
Astigmatism/fi eld curvature, zone plate image
quality and, 849–850
Atmosphere interaction, electron beam-induced
phenomena and, 511
Atmospheric scanning electron microscope (ASEM),
237
Atmospheric thin windows (ATW), 295
Atomic force microscope (AFM), 217, 929, 1048
actin fi laments image with, 1032
bacterial cell wall protein image with, 1061–1062
beyond imaging with, 1059–1064
of block face surface image, 1029
cells and, 1057–1058
cellular samples and, 1058–1064
chemical bonding and, 1055–1056
collagen matrices and, 1061
contact mode of, 930, 1046
design optimization, for life sciences, 1048–1052
elements of, 1030
feedback loop of, 1040–1045
elements of, 1041–1042
probe/sample and, 1042
schematic drawing of, 1041
stability of, 1040–1041
fi xed 3T3 cell image with, 1049
frequency response of, closed feedback loop, 1045
imaging modes of, 1046–1048
instrument noise in, 1045–1046
instrumentation for, 1030–1052
intermittent contact mode of, 930, 1047–1048
Langmuir-Blodgett fi lms and, 1056–1057
in life sciences, 1025–1064
macromolecular samples for, 1053–1057
physisorption/DLVO force for, 1054
specimen supports for, 1053–1054
natural frequencies for, scanner elements, 1043
noncontact, 930
optical microscopy and, 1049–1050
physisorption/DLVO force and, 1054
physisorption/hydrophobic/hydrophilic
interaction and, 1055
pulmonary surfactant and, 1060–1061
sample deformation and, 1034–1037
sample environment for, 1051–1052
sample preparation for, 1052–1058
scanners for, 1050–1051
sphingolipid-cholesterol rafts, 1062–1064
stylus geometry and, 1033
tip geometries and, 1032
tip-sample interaction and, 1033–1040
Atomic number
total inelastic cross sections and, 318
X-ray energy and, 276
Atomic resolution, 69
element-specifi c imaging with, 996
imaging, with force interactions, 930–944
magnetic imaging, with SP-STM, 1127
NC-AFM/STM/KFM, on Ge/Si (105), 959
Atomic resolution transmission electron microscopy,
3–58
Atomic scattering, interference features from, 87
Atom/molecule manipulation, STM and, 1003–1006
ATP synthase, 1028
Attenuation coeffi cients µ,ν, energy dependence of,
610
ATW. See Atmospheric thin windows
Index I3
Au, energy dependence of, inelastic mean free
electron path of, 610
Au atoms, charging of, 1006
Au nanoparticles, ronchigrams of, 78
Au on Si deposition, 465
Au sample, electron trajectories simulation of, 349
Auger electron emission microscopy (AEEM), 606
Auger electrons (AE), 109, 149
SEM and, 181
yield, 179
Auger microscopy, 181
Austenite
orientation map of, 257
secondary electron micrograph of, 256
Automated tomography, experimental setup for,
571
Automation, Cryo-ET and, 571–576
Axial diffractograms images, from HRTEM, 20
Axial resolution improvement, by aperture
enlargement, 795–811
Ba M
45
edges, Nb M
45
edges and, 330
Background
in EDXS, 330–331
in EELS, 330–331
Backscattered electrons (BSE), 166, 172–175
detector, ETD and, 187
energy dependence of, 608
of fern fossil, 205
micrographs
of frozen yeast cells, 218
of steel ball, 155, 185, 190
of tartar, 186
yield
normalized, 173
SE yield and, 171
Backscattering contrast, on Co squares, 624
Bacterial cell wall protein image, with AFM,
1061–1062
Bacteriohodopsin, force dependent surface
tomography of, 1036
Ball-and-stick model, of Si(111), 977
Ballistic electron, band diagrams for, 1008
Ballistic electron emission microscopy (BEEM),
1007–1012
constant-current STM images and, 1010
on polycrystalline Au/n-Si(001), 1009
schematic setup of, 1008
on self-assembled quantum dots, 1011
Band diagrams
for ballistic electron, 1008
for elastic/inelastic electron tunneling, 973
for vacuum tunneling, 971
Be(0001), Fermi contour imaging of, 1105
Be(1010), Fermi contour imaging of, 1105
Beam current, v. incoherent imaging, 119
Beam damage, Cryo-ET and, 554–557
Beam interaction volumes, schematic diagram of,
108
Beam scanner, 133
Beam separator
in aberration corrected PEEM microscope, 675–677
for LEEM, 622
Beam-induced phase transitions, 513–514
Beam-vapor interaction, nanostructures and, 512
BEEM. See Ballistic electron emission microscopy
Bethe stopping power, mean ionization potential
and, for carbon/protein, 206
Bethe’s theory, 320
BF detector. See Bright-fi eld detector
Bi
2
Sr
2
CaCu
2
O
8+δ
, Fourier transform spectroscopy on,
991
Bias-dependent evolution, of LDOS/ILDOS
oscillations, surface states, 1087
Bias-dependent imaging, STM and, 984–986
Bias-dependent STM, on GaAs(110), 986
Bias-dependent tunneling, band diagrams of, 984
Biological electron microscopy, 536
Biological X-ray microscopy, 892–895
Birch pollen, secondary electron micrograph of,
217
Bloch wave approach, 56
Bloch wave function, 94
Block face surface, AFM image of, 1029
Block oxide structure, oxidation of, 470
Bond formation, with STM tip, 1113
Bragg's law, 254
Bright-fi eld (BF) detector, 68
Bright-fi eld (BF) image, of Co nanowires, 1168
Bright-fi eld (BF) scanning transmission electron
microscope (STEM)
crystalline sample schematic diagram of, 79
large detector incoherent, 82
lattice imaging in, 79–81
phase contrast imaging in, 81–82
Brightness suffi ciency, for STEM, 114–115
BSE. See Backscattered electrons
Bulk materials, deformation in, 488
Buried interfaces, heterostructures and, 1007–1016
C
2
H
2
/C
2
D
2
, chemical sensitive imaging of, 1118
C
60
/C-nanotube, I(V) tunneling spectroscopy,
989–993
Ca, EELS of, 374
CaF
2
high-resolution constant height images of, 944
NC-AFM of, 943–944
Carbon K-edge, specifi c peaks in, 106
Carbon nanostructures, growth of, 469–472
in situ, 471
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 498
mechanical properties of, 498
molecular wavefunctions in, 1095
Carbon/gold, frequency-dependent oscillator
strength, 837
Carbon/protein, Bethe stopping power and, mean
ionization potential of, 206
Catalysis, in situ transmission electron microscopy
and, 466–467
Catalysts, in situ imaging of, 468
I4 Index
Catalytic fl ow reactor, STM, simultaneous mass
spectrometry and, 1001
Cathode lenses confi gurations, for LEEM, 620
Cathode ray tube (CRT), 139
Cathodoluminescence (CL), 109, 149, 1120
detectors, 151–152
SEM and, 177
CBED. See Convergent beam electron diffraction
CC. See Charge collection
CCC, histogram of, 586
CCD. See Charge-coupled device
CE. See Collection effi ciency
Cells
absorbing, on glass coverslips, 1057
AFM and, 1057–1058
immobilizing nonadhering, 1058
Cellular cryoelectron tomography, of magnetotactic
microorganism, 543
Cellular samples
imaging of, 1058–1064
locally probing macromolecular and, 1058–1064
Cerenkov effect, 312
CFEG. See Cold fi eld emission gun
Charge collection (CC), 192
Charge-coupled device (CCD), 36, 37, 99, 412, 535, 755
array, 73
cameras, MTFs and, 40
chip, 37
detector, schematic diagram of, 38
Charged particle optics (CPO), 665
Chemical bonding, AFM and, 1055–1056
Chemical contrast
with functionalized tip, 1109
in XPEEM, 663
Chemical imaging, of manganese nodule, 663
Chemical maps, of water microbial colony, 897
Chemical sensitive imaging, of C
2
H
2
/C
2
D
2
, 1118
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 978
Chromatic aberrations, 146, 704–705
aplanatic corrector of, 720
correctors, 718–726
all-electrostatic correctors and, 718–719
mixed quadrupole correctors and, 719–723
of electrostatic correction, 722–723
STEM and, 118–119
Chromatic correction, energy electron distribution
and, 709
Chromatic defocus spreads, probe profi le plots with,
122
Circular quantum corral, of Fe atoms, 1091
CITS. See Current-imaging tunneling spectroscopy
CL. See Cathodoluminescence
Cluster analysis, of lutetium, 898
CNTs. See Carbon nanotubes
Co, XMCD of, 679
Co dots, SEM of, 1166
Co nanoparticle, self-assembled, low magnifi cation
bright-fi eld image, 1159
Co nanoparticle chains, in electron holography,
1153–1156
Co nanoparticle rings, electron holography and,
1157–1160
Co nanowires, electron holography and, 1167–1168
Co particles, off-axis electron holography of, 1155
Co squares, backscattering contrast on, 624
(Co
83
Cr
17
)
87
Pt
13
alloy, XMCD of, 904
Coherence, 74
HRTEM and, 26–29
requirements, for CXDI, 1221–1223
resolution and, 883–884
types of, 26–27
in Zernike phase contrast, 884
Coherent convergent beam electron diffraction
ronchigrams and, 73–78
Si<110> pattern of, 74
Coherent X-ray diffractive imaging (CXDI), 1196
coherence requirements for, 1221–1223
computer processing demands for, 1223–1224
resolution, 1221–1223
Co/LaFeO
3
, magnetization reversal of, 684
Cold fi eld emission, schematic diagram of, 116
Cold fi eld emission gun (CFEG), 68, 209
schematic diagram of, 116
for STEM, 11 –115
Cole-Cole plot, of local impedance spectra, 953
Collagen fi brils, adsorbed on mice, 1059
Collagen matrices, AFM and, 1061
Collagen microfi brils, 1062
Collection effi ciency (CE), 149
Colloidal chemistry sample, images of, 896
Color fi lm, FIB of, secondary electron micrograph of,
200
Column design, electron optics and, 109–113
Coma, zone plate image quality and, 850
Commercial cross-grating replica, SE micrographs
of, 163
Complex oxides, exit-wave reconstruction of, 48–51
Compositionally sensitive imaging, examples of,
96–97
Condenser
OL and, 110
zone plates, 856–858
Condenser aperture, 80, 113
Condenser-objective lens, schematic drawing of, 113
Cone formation, from diffraction, scheme of, 253
Confocal principles
laser scanning microscopy and, 755–757
TPE of, fl uorescent molecules and, 754–763
Confocal PSFs, FWHM of, 759
Confocal setup
equivalent optical confi guration for, 757
historical sketch of, 753
Confocal two-photon excitation, illustrated
modalities of, 769
Co/NiO, magnetic domain imaging of, 683
Constant-current STM images
and BEEM, 1010
of crystal BSCCO, 1131
of Si(001), 983
Contact atomic force microscope (AFM), 930
Index I5
Contact mode, of AFM, 1046
Contamination
beam-induced, 202
SEM and, 201–203
Continuous wave (CW), 407, 408
Continuous-fl ow cryostat, variable-temperature
STM with, 1077
Contour plot, of planar zone plates, 853
Contrast, in TXM, 885
Contrast formation
FESEM and, 212–214
for LVSEM, 225–226
SEM and, 182–195
for VLVSEM, 225–226
Contrast mechanisms, with LEEM, 624–630
Contrast transfer, partial coherence and, 880–882
Contrast transfer functions (CTFs), phase/
amplitude, 425
Conventional excitation, v. two-photon excitation,
756
Conventional scanning electron microscope
(CSEM), 139–208
schematic drawing of, 140
Conventional transmission electron microscope
(CTEM), 65, 535
incoherent imaging and, 84–90
Conventional transmission electron microscope/
Scanning transmission electron microscope
instruments, 112–113
Convergence correction, EELS and, 344–346
Convergent beam electron diffraction (CBED), 73,
517
Cooling system, for Cryo-ET, 563
Copper, standing wave patterns of, 1083
Copper braid, mechanical decoupling of, 1075
Copper deposition, using electrochemical cell, 512
Copper oxidation, 469
Core electron, excitation on, 660
Core-loss edges, 101
Correction
factors, for spectra quantifi cation, 345
techniques, 339–341
Wien fi lters and, 723–724
Cosine amplitude grating imaging, with STXM,
881
Co(0001) surface, SPLEEM image of, 644
CPO. See Charged particle optics
Cramér-Rao lower bound (CRLB)
distance measurement with, 1246–1248
position measurement with, 1245–1246
statistical model-based resolution and, 1244–1248
Cr-Fe-alloy, X-ray microanalysis of, 250, 251
CRLB. See Cramér-Rao lower bound
Cross correlation function (XCF), PCF and, 23
Cross sections
calculations of, 321
comparison of, of scattering processes, 325
of TDS, 92
Cross-fractured semiconductor structure, secondary
electron micrograph of, 227
Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy (X-
STM), 1013, 1014
dopant imaging by, 1015
imaging buried heterostructures and, 1013–1016
on self-assembled quantum dots, 1014
Cross-sectional semiconductor device specimen,
experimental results from, 1180
Cross-sectioned diode, surface topography of, 951
CRT. See Cathode ray tube
Cryoelectron tomography (Cryo-ET), 535–592,
543–547
acceleration voltage/emission for, 560
alignment and, 576–577
automation and, 571–576
beam damage and, 554–557
cooling system for, 563
cryopreparation, 549–552
cryosectioning, 552–554
detector for, 563–566
dual-axis tilting for, 559–560
electron optics for, 561
energy fi lter for, 566–570
goniometer tilt stage for, 562–563
instrumentation/automation for, 560–576
introduction to, 535–538
macromolecular complexes, identifi cation
strategies of, 584
major diffi culties in, 547–589
plunge freezing instrumentation and, 550
plunge freezing process steps and, 551
radiation sensitivity and, 554–557
reconstruction and, 577–582
sample preparation with, 547–549
side entry cryo-holder for, 562
with single particle approach, 547
single-axis tilting for, 557
strategies/developments in, 589–592
tilting geometry with, 557–560
visualization/image analysis and, 582–584
Cryo-ET. See Cryoelectron tomography
Cryosectioning, Cryo-ET and, 552–554
Crystal BSCCO, constant-current STM images of, 1131
Crystal orientation contrast, SEM and, 193
Crystal strain, lattice displacements in, 93
Crystal structure analysis, 141
by EBSD, 252–257
Crystalline materials, ronchigrams of, 74–76
Crystallization
metal-induced, 449
on patterned substrates, 474, 475, 476
phase transformations and, 448–449
surface reactions and, 463–476
Crystallographic characterization, of polycrystalline
materials, 134
CSEM. See Conventional scanning electron
microscope
CTEM. See Conventional transmission electron
microscope
CTFs. See Contrast transfer functions
Cu Lu
23
edge, 329
I6 Index
Cu-DTBPP, molecular conformation identifi cation of,
1019
Cu-Nb multifi lamentary composite, deformation in,
491
Current-imaging tunneling spectroscopy (CITS),
988
local I-V measurements and, 986–989
on Si(111), 989
Cu(111) surface column, Lander molecule on, 1111
CVD. See Chemical vapor deposition
CXDI. See Coherent X-ray diffractive imaging
Dark-fi eld imaging, phase identifi cation by, 626
Data cube, 104
of spectrum image, 104
three-dimensional, 105
DECO. See Doubly symmetric electrostatic corrector
Deconvolution, periodic artifacts removal through,
803–807
Defocus difference, PCF and, 24
Deformation
in bulk materials, 488
controlled atmosphere effect on, 493
in Cu-Nb multifi lamentary composite, 491
microscopic phenomenon during, 487–493
of multiphase/composite/layered materials,
490–493
in polycrystalline materials, 487–490
in single crystals, 487–490
Density problem sampling, in Fourier space,
illustration of, 581
Depth-of-focus limit
high-energy X-rays and, in x-ray microscopes,
887–888
lens-free imaging and, in x-ray microscopes, 888
through-focus deconvolution and, in x-ray
microscopes, 887
wide-band illumination and, in x-ray microscopes,
886–887
in X-ray microscope tomography, 885–886
Detection geometries, FESEM and, 211
Detection limits
for EDXS, 375–377
EDXS v. EELS, 381–384
for EELS, 379–381
in microanalysis, 374–384
Detector(s)
characterization of, 38–39
for Cryo-ET, 563–566
EDXS, 293
FESEM and, 211
HRTEM and, 36–39
Detector effi ciency, detector windows and, 296
Detector quantum effi ciency (DQE), 38, 39, 412
Detector windows
detector effi ciency and, 296
for EDXS, 295–297
Detectors/detection strategies
for LVSEM, 225
for VLVSEM, 225
Detector/signal processing artifacts, EDXS and,
298–299
Deterministic model-based resolution, 1236–1240
Dielectric(s)
advanced SPM techniques for, 953–958
NC-AFM of, 943–944
real/imaginary part of, 395
Differential conductance, 1071
spatial dependence of, 1083
with tip over clean terrace/steep edge, 1084
Differential conductance mapping, 989–993
Diffraction
barrier, 790
breaking of, 811–827
contrast, from Si surfaces, 625
limit
and Rayleigh resolution, 1231–1234
Sparrow resolution and, 1231–1234
superresolution and, 1230–1236
Diffraction limited probe, 72
Diffractive imaging, 1196–1225
applicability domains of, 1218
diffractive patterns and, 1201–1205
experimental results of, 1211–1219
HIO algorithm and, 1199–1200, 1205–1211
history of, 1197–1201
images and, 1201–1205
introduction to, 1196–1197
iterated projections of, 1219–1221
objects and, 1201–1205
validity domains of approximation and, 1201–1205
Diffractive patterns, diffractive imaging and,
1201–1205
Diffractogram measurements, HRTEM and, 21–22
Diffusion coeffi cients, for raft proteins, 1064
Diffusion kinetics, of Pd atoms, 1002
Digital imaging recording, with SEM, 157–158
Digital signal processor (DSP), 976
1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphothioethanol
(DPPTE), secondary electron micrograph of,
231
Direct visualization, of surface state dispersion,
1090
Directly coupled CCD camera system, 412
Disc of least confusion, 70
Discrete angle sampling, illustration of, 579
Dislocation
dynamics, in SiGe heterostructures, 494
in H atmosphere, 492
Distance dependencies, of short/long range forces,
932
Distance measurement
with CRLB, 1246–1248
lower bound of standard deviation of, 1247
Distortion correction procedure, in electron
holography, 1146
DLVO force
force v. distance curve with, 1039
ion dependence of, 1054
DLVO theory, 1037