Chilingarian G.V. et al. Surface Operations in Petroleum Production, II
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515
Questions:
obtained by closed cup testing. Why?
and discuss them.
lubricating oil? Why?
(1)
What relationship would one expect to be true
of
the results obtained by open cup and those
(2)
How many methods of determining flash and fire points are discussed in the ASTM manual? List
(3) Which one of the following can be set afire with a match:
(1)
gasoline,
(2)
kerosine, and
(3)
(4)
Define kerosine, gasoline, and fuel oil.
Part 11-Flash and fire points by open cup (ASTM
D92)
Instructions:
Each group is expected to procure, assemble and operate the open cup tester as described in the
ASTM manual. Each group will obtain two readings
of
flash and fire points for kerosine, fuel oil, and
lube oil. All work must be conducted under
a
firehood.
Results:
Kerosine flash point
Run no.
1
Run
no.
2
Kerosine fire point
Run
no.
1
Run no.
2
Fuel oil flash point
Run
no.
1
Run
no.
2
Fuel oil fire point
Run
no.
1
Run no.
2
SAE
No.
lube oil
Flash point Fire point
Run
no.
1
Run no.
1
Run no.
2
Run
no.
2
Questions:
(1)
Why is the determination of flash and fire points very important in the petroleum industry?
(2)
Suggest improvements
in
the open cup method
of
testing.
(3)
What relationship exists between the flash and fire points of petroleum materials and their boiling
(4)
Enumerate the conditions that must exist at the time
of
a flash occurring above a liquid petroleum
points?
product. Enumerate these conditions for a fire point.
Part 111-Flash point by means
of
the Pensky-Martin closed tester (ASTM
D
93)
Instructions:
must be performed under a firehood.
Each group is expected to obtain check results on a sample of kerosine and
a
motor oil. All work
Experiment
A-7:
Color
of
lube oil and cloud and pour points
Part I-Color
of
lube oil
Instructions:
ASTM manual for the darker oils, regardless of whether the oil has color above
8
(ASTM) or not.
Each group will determine the color
of
several lube oils, as such, and diluted as described in the
516
Results.
Oil no.
1
Oil no.
2
Oil no.
3
ASTM
color no.
Diluted color no.
Questions:
(1) What does the color of a lube oil indicate? Why?
(2) Report your results in at least two other systems.
(3)
Describe all methods of determining the color of petroleum products.
(4)
How is the color of green lube oil determined?
Part 11-Cloud and pour points
(ASTM
D
97)
Instructions:
Each group will determine the cloud and pour points
of
three oils.
Results:
Oil no.
1
Oil no. 2
Cloud point
Pour point
Oil no.
3
Questions:
principles.
(1)
What does the cloud point indicate? Name one other
ASTM
method that depends upon similar
(2)
What physical property
of
an oil does the pour point indicate? How else could it be determined?
(3)
Why are pour points important?
(4)
Explain why the “thermal history”
of
an oil sample affects its pour point.
(5) Discuss dewaxing. How does it affect cloud and pour points?
Experiment
A-8:
Dilution
of
crankcase
oil
(ASTM
D
322)
Instructions:
Two
determinations will be made
of
the oil supplied.
Each group of three to four students will assemble the apparatus as described in the
ASTM
manual.
Results:
Run no.
1
Run no.
2
Average of two runs
Questions:
(1)
What does the dilution of crankcase oils indicate about engine performance?
(2)
Why is a time limit placed
on
this test?
(3)
Why the lube
oil
does not distill over into the trap?
(4)
Discuss the steam distillations in general. Give theoretical considerations.
(5)
Explain how the
ASTM
distillation test for water in petroleum products is analogous to the
ASTM
distillation test for the dilution of crankcase oils. Give in each case the main reason why the liquid
is added to the material being tested.
517
Experiment
A-9:
Orsat analysis
of
a mixture containing oxygen
Instructions:
provided.
Each group will make four complete analyses, two on the atmosphere and two on the sample
Results:
Atmosphere Sample no.
1
no.
1
no.
2
no.
1
no.
2
Volume
0
of CO,
Volume
B
of
0,
Volume
B
of
N,
and H
,O
vapor
Questions:
(1)
Report the average of the results for each gas in weight percent.
(2)
Report the above in mole percent.
(3)
Report the above in mole percent on a dry basis, assuming that the relative humidity of both
(4)
Report the analysis for both of the above samples on a dry, C0,-free basis.
(5)
Calculate the average molecular weight of each sample and determine the weight of the gas in
samples is
loo%,
and that the humidity remained constant throughout the test.
pounds per cubic foot, cubic yard, and cubic mile.
Experiment
A-10:
Orsat analysis
of
a gas mixture containing an olefin
Instructions:
Each group is expected to run three complete analysis of the given sample.
Results:
Sample
no.
1
no.
2
no.
3
Volume
5%
C,H,
Volume
B
CO,
Volume
B
0,
Volume
8
inerts
Totals
Questions:
(1)
Are the inerts present in the gas sample essentially nitrogen?
(2)
What reagent can be used to remove acid gases from a gas mixture in
an
Orsat apparatus?
(3)
How
can oxygen be removed?
(4)
Discuss in general the removal of unsaturated hydrocarbons from a gas mixture.
Experiment
A-11:
Orsat analysis
of
a mixture coniaining hydrogen and carbon monoxide
Instructions:
Each group will analyze the sample three times.
51
8
Results:
no.
1
no.
2
no.
3
Volume
%
CO,
Volume
%
0,
Volume
%
H,
Volume
%
CO
Volume
%
inerts
Questions:
should be taken? Write equations.
(1) Discuss the analysis
of
gas mixtures containing H, by the Orsat apparatus. What precautions
(2)
Repeat the above for CO.
(3)
Discuss the order of removal of various gases in the Orsat procedure.
(4)
How
is the proportion of water vapor in the air determined on using Orsat analysis.
(5)
Rearrange the following gases in the order of their removal in the Orsat apparatus together with
the name
of
the solution used for removal of each:
O,,
N,, CO,,
H,S,
C,H,.
Experiment
A-12:
Solidifying point of benzene
(ASTM
D
852)
and determination
of
molecular weight from
lonering of freezing point
of
benzene
Instructions:
Apparatus will be assembled according to the instructions in the
ASTM
manual. Each group is to
check the freezing point
(F.P.)
of
(1)
pure benzene,
(2)
10
cc
of
benzene plus
1
cc
of
kerosine, and
(3)
10
cc of benzene plus
1
cc of lube oil.
Calculate the average molecular weight of kerosine and lube oil, knowing that pure benzene freezes at
5.51O C
(dry)
and that
1
gram-mole
of
impurity in
1000
g of benzene lowers the freezing point by 5.0"
C.
Results:
(a)
F.P.
of benzene:
(b)
F.P.
of (10-1) benzene-kerosine:
(c)
F.P.
of
(10-1)
benzene-lube oil:
(d) Average molecular weight of kerosine:
(e) Average molecular weight of lube oil:
Questions:
progressively until it is all solid, and (b) an impure compound.
an impure compound.
compound present in each?
(1)
Draw schematic diagrams of the temperature versus time for (a) a pure compound frozen
(2)
Explain each significant slope and maximum and minimum points shown on the freezing curve
of
(3)
If kerosine and lube oil are completely paraffinic in nature (CnH2,,+,), what is the average
(4)
What is the estimated error in determining the freezing points?
Experiment
A
-I
3:
Corrosion
-
electromotive series and galvanic corrosion
'
The experiment will consist of the following parts:
(1)
A strip
(1
in. by
6
in.) of zinc will be immersed in
10%
HCI. Observe and explain all the reactions
and corrosion.
'
See La Que et al.
(1961).
519
TABLE A-I1
Electromotive force series
Electrode reaction Standard electrode potential,
E
O
(Volts,
25
O
C)
Li
=
Li+
+
e-
+
3.05
K
=
K+
+
e-
+
2.922
Ca
=
Ca2+
+2e-
+
2.87
Na
=
Na++
e-
+
2.712
Mg=MgZS+2e-
+
2.375
A1
=
A13+
+
3e-
+
1.67
Mn=Mn2++2e-
+
1.029
Zn
=
Zn'+
+2e-
+
0.762
Cr
=
Cr3+
+3e-
+
0.74
Ga
=
Ga3+
+
3e-
+
0.53
Fe=Fe2++2e-
+
0.440
Cd
=
Cd2+
i2e-
+
0.402
In
=
h3+
+
3e-
+
0.340
T1=
Tl++
e-
+
0.336
co
=
Co2+
+2e-
+
0.277
Ni
=
NiZ+
+2e-
+
0.250
sn=sn2++2e-
+0.136
~b
=
pb2+
+2e-
+
0.126
0.000
cu
=
Cu2+
+2e-
-
0.345
Cu
=
Cu+
+
e-
-
0.522
2Hg
=
Hgi+
+2e-
-
0.789
Ag
=
Ag+
+
e-
-
0.800
Pd
=Pd2++2e-
-
0.987
Hg=Hgz++2e-
-
0.854
Au
=
Au3+
+3e-
Au
=
Au+
+
e-
Be=Be2++2e-
+
1.85
H,
=
2H+
+
2e-
Pt
=
Pt*+
+2e-
ca.
-1.2
-
1.50
-
1.68
(2)
A
strip of iron (or carbon steel) will be immersed in
5% CuSO,
solution (use
250
ml
of solution in
(3)
A
strip of copper will be immersed in
10%
HCl. Observe all reactions and explain.
(4)
A
strip of copper will be immersed
in
5%
AgNO,
solution. Observe all reactions and explain.
(5)
Strips of aluminum and zinc will be immersed in
3%
NaCl solution and then connected to a
millivoltmeter
(0
to
lo00
mV
DC)
without wetting the wires. Record voltage for a period
of
15
min and
explain the indicated voltages.
(6)
Strips
of
copper and zinc will be immersed in
3%
NaCl solution and then connected to a
millivoltmeter. Record voltage for a period of
15
min and compare with the results obtained in
(5).
Explain.
400-ml
beaker).
Question
(see
Table
A-ZZ):
evolution? Why?
Complete the following reactions
in
aqueous solutions. In which case will there be more hydrogen gas
520
Ca+Zn2++?
Ca+Pb2++?
Zn
+
Mg2+
+
?
REFERENCES
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Products and Lubricants, 1951.
The Significance of Tests
of
ASTM
Standards, 1984.
Annual Book, Petroleum Products, Lubricants, and Fossil Fuels,
Sec.
5,
Vols.
Bertness, T.A. and Chilingarian, G.V., 1984. Corrosion
in
drilling operations. In: G.V. Chilingarian and
Bureau of Naval Personnel, 1955.
Fundamentals
of
Petroleum.
NAVPERS 10883, 190 pp.
California Natural Gasoline Association, 1947.
Tentative Standard Procedure for the Charcoal Test for the
Chilingar, G.V., 1956.
The Technology of Testing Petroleum Products.
U.S.A.F. Publ., 70 pp.
Ethyl Corporation, 1951.
Aviation Fuels and Their Effect
on
Engine Performance.
NAVAER-06-5-501,
LaQue, F.L., May, T.P.
and
Uhlig, H.H., 1961.
Corrosion in Action.
International Nickel, New York,
Matuszak, M.P., 1954.
Gas Analysis Manual.
Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Penn.
Nelson, W.L., 1950.
Petroleum Refinery Engineering.
McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 715 pp.
Perry, R.H. and Chilton, C.H., 1973.
Chemical Engineers’ Handbook.
McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 5th
Tchillingarian (Chilingar), G.V. and Beeson, C.M., 1952, 1958.
The Technology
of
Testing Petroleum
Petroleum Products.
ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa., 76 pp.
05.01
through 05.04. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa.
P. Vorabutr,
Drilling and Drilling Fluih.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 559-580.
Determination of the Gasoline Content of Natural Gas.
CNGA Bull. TS-351, Long Beach,
Calif.
USAF T.O., No. 06-5-4, 145 pp.
N.Y., 47 pp.
ed.,
Products.
Univ. Southern California, Pet. Eng. Dep. Publ., 65 pp.; 74 pp.
521
Appendix
B
CONVERSION OF
UNITS
JOHN
0.
ROBERTSON Jr.
and
GEORGE
V.
CHILINGARIAN
THEORETICAL ASPECTS
Conversion of units of time and length are simple. For example,
1
year (calendar)
=
365 days (mean
solar)
=
525,600 minutes (mean solar)
=
3.1536
X
lo7
seconds (mean solar), and
1
yard
=
3 feet
=
36
inches
=
91.44 centimeters.
The units
of
force and mass, however, are not as easily converted and understood. The earth exerts a
gravitational force on all bodies. The magnitude of this force, called weight, is equal to the mass of the
body multiplied by the gravitational acceleration, or
F=
mg
where:
F
=
weight or force in pounds,
m
=
mass of the body in slugs,
g
=
gravitational acceleration,
which at sea level is about 32.2 ft/sec2.
For example, the density (mass per unit volume),
p,
of water having
a
specific weight,
y,
of
62.4
lb/cu ft is
62.4 Ib/cu ft
32.2 ft/sec2
P=Y/g=
=
1.94 slug/cu ft
In the opinion of the writers, it is critical to use different terms for the specific weight,
y,
and for the
density,
p.
EXAMPLE
1:
DYNAMIC VISCOSITY CONVERSION FACTOR
Dynamic or absolute viscosity,
p,
may be defined as the (shearing stress)/(rate
of
shearing strain)
ratio assuming a linear distribution of velocity between two plates (one plate moving with respect to the
other) with fluid in between:
r
p=--
V/h
where:
F=
the force required to maintain flow (to slide the fluid layers relative to each other, which is
accomplished by overcoming the internal fluid friction),
A
=
area
of
the moving plate
in
contact with the
fluid,
Y= velocity
of
upper plate
if
lower plate is stationary,
h
=distance between the two plates,
r
=
shearing stress
or
F/A.
522
The symbols,
M,
L,
F,
and
T
represent the fundamental dimensions of mass, length, force, and time,
respectively; thus:
Inasmuch as force equals mass times acceleration
[
F
=
(ML/T2)],
the dimensions
of
dynamic viscosity
are
Thus, dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed in Ib-sec/ft2
or
slug/ft-sec, whereas in the metric
system:
1
(dyne-sec/cm2)
=
l(g/cm-sec)
=
1
poise
Inasmuch as
1
in.
=
2.54 cm and
1
dyne
=
2.248
X
10K6 Ib,
I
poise
=
1
(
dyne-sec/cm2
)
dyne(2.248
X
lb/dyne) sec
cm2 [(2.54X12)2ft2/cm2]
=
2.089
x
10- (Ib-sec/ft2
)
=
2.089~ 10~3(slug/ft-sec)
‘The absolute viscosity of water at 20 C is around
1
centipoise, which is equal to
0.01
of a poise, named
in
honor of the French scientist Poiseuille.
EXAMPLE 2: DETERMINATION OF MULTICOMPONENT CONVERSION CONSTANTS
When handling equations using field or laboratory data, it is often easier to develop one constant
rather than convert each constituent individually. The following example is the determination of the
constant for Darcy’s law equation when information is given as follows:
where permeability,
k,
is in darcys; pressure drop,
Ap,
is in inches of mercury instead of atm;
cross-sectional area,
A,
is
in square inches instead of cm2; viscosity,
p,
is in poises instead
of
centipoises;
length,
L,
is in yards, instead
of
cm; and volumetric rate
of
fluid flow,
q,
is in quarts per minute instead
of cm3/sec.
From the conversion tables:
1
qt
=
946.3529 cu cm
1
min
=
60 sec
1
poise
=
100 CP
1
sq in.
=
6.4516 sq cm
1
yd
=
91.44 cm
1
in.
Hg
=
0.0334211 atm
523
Thus:
(qt)
(946.3529
cm3/qt)
(min)
(60
sec/min)
4=
(in. Hg)
(0.033421
1
atm/in. Hg) (in.
)
(6.45 16
cm*/in.’
)
(poises)
(100
cP/1
poise) (yd)
(91.44
cm/yd)
=
(constant)
Solving for the constant gives
(0.0334211)(6.4516) (60)
(100)
(91.44) (946.3529)
constant
=
=
1.49x
10-6
If
conversion from in.
Hg
to
atmospheres was not given, then the following information should have been
given: (a) specific gravity
of
Hg, and (b)
1
atm
=
1033
cm
of
liquid having density
of
1.00
g/cm3.
524
CONVERSION FACTORS
Multiply
+
by
--*
To
obtain
To
obtain
t
by
t
Divide
abampere
abcoulomb
abfarad
abhenry
abmho
abohm
abvolt
acre,
U.S.
Survey
acre-foot (acre-ft)
ampere-hour (amp-hr)
are
angstrom
astronomical unit
atmosphere, standard
(at4
bar
barn
barrel, petroleum (bbl)
barrel,
U.S.,
dry
barrel,
U.S.,
liq.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4.046856
4.3560
6.272640
1.5625
4.840
1.233482
4.3560
1.613333
3.259
3.6
1
2.471054
3.861022
1
1.49599
1.013250
1.013250
1.6
1.03326
3.38995
3.3941
1.46960
1
9.86923
1
1.45038
1
1.589828
5.614583
4.2
1.589828
1.156271
9.696969
4.083333
1.192405
1.03125
4.210938
x10
*
x10
*
x
109
~10-9
x
109
x
10-9
x10-*
x
lo3
xi04
x
106
~10-3
x
lo3
x
lo3
x104
x
lo3
x
lo5
x
lo3
x
102
x10-2
x
10-5
x
10-'O
x
10"
x
105
x
103
x10
*
x10
*
x10 *
x10
*
x
105
x10-'
x
106
x10
*
x10-28
x10-'
x10
*
x
lo2
x10-1
x10-'
x10-'
coulomb
f
H
siemens
Ohm
sq m
sq ft
sq in.
sq
mi
(statute)
sq
Yd
cu m
cu ft
cu yd
gal
(U.S.,
liq)
coulomb
sq
m
acre
sq mi
m
m
Pa
bars
cm
of
Hg at
0
O
C
cm of H,O at
4°C
ft
of
H20
at
39.2OF
ft of
H,O
at
62O
F
psi
Pa
atm
dynes/sq-cm
psi
sq
cu m
cu ft
gal
(US,
Sq)
1
cum
bbl
(U.S.,
liq.)
cu ft
cu m
bbl
(U.S.,
dry)
cu ft
V
*
The appropriate
"SI"
units are the first conversion, given.
The abbreviations used here are those presented in the
Hundbook
of
Chemistty
and
Physics
(1980-1981).