Chilingarian G.V. et al. Surface Operations in Petroleum Production, II
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xv
Selection of water intake location
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Shallow well in sea water aquifer
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Intake from near-shore area
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Design
of
water intake
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Fine screen
Chlorination
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Filtration
Oxygen scavenging
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Stabilization of sea water
Biocidal treatment of sea water
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Dissolved oxygen
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pH change
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Total iron count increase
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Total bacteria
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filter count test (total bacteria), 343
Insulated corrosion coupons, 343-Noninsulated corrosion coupons, 344-Exposure time
of corrosion coupons, 344
Corrosion coupons
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Significance
of
various tests
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Summary
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Reporting
of
test data
Oilremoval
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Removal of solids (filtration)
Preparation of water for su
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Gravity separation, 355-Flotation, 356
Slow sand filters, 358-Rapid sand filters, 358-High-rate rapid sand filters, 358-Di-
atomaceous earth filters, 360- Selection of diatomite, 362
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Removal of dissolved gases
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Aeration
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Pipelines
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Separators
Aggressiveness of the waters
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Filtration equipment
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Equipment considerations
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Volume and origin of suspended material to be removed, 364
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Value of space on which facilities are to be located
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Clarification, 366-1114
tion filters, 367
n systems, 366-Filter-aid filters and in-line floccula-
Degassing equipment
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Deaeration equipment
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Chemical miwing and feed equipment
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Sample questions
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334
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369
XVI
Chapter 10. OFFSHORE TECHNOLOGY
S.
Kumar and G.V. Chilinganan
Introduction
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Offshore production facilities
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Offshore exploration
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Artificial islands
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Gravel islands, 380-Artificial ice islands, 380
Fixed-bottom mounted type platforms, 382-Floating-buoyant-type platforms, 389
Offshore platforms
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Platform installation
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Platform selection
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Platform construction steps
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Satellite well production system, 403-Semisubmersible production system,
spheric chamber production system, 405-Subsea atmospheric system
(SAS),
405-Emon’s
subsea production system
(SPS),
406
Sea-floor templates, 398-Mooring systems, 401
Subsea production systems
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Design considerations
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Earthquake design criteria
Pile capacity
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Wind and wave forces
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Examplelo-I
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Solution, 413
Offshore transportation methods
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Underwater pipelines
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Tankers
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Offshore tanker loading
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Combined storage and tanker loading
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Sample questions
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References
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Offshore storage
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........................
Chapter 11. POLLUTION CONTROL
K.M.
Sasseen, G.V. Chilingarian and
J.D.
Brady
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Chemical treatment
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Caustic soda, 44-Soda ash, 446
Nitrogen oxides control
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Catalytic reduction, 449-Ammonia injection, 449-Burner modification, 450
Casing vent gas collection systems
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373
374
379
319
381
396
398
401
403
407
409
409
412
41 3
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414
415
41 5
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417
418
41 8
42
1
422
423
424
425
429
431
431
433
436
441
447
449
450
XVII
Produced water treatment and disposal
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.
451
Sample problems
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453
Summary
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452
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Sample problem 11-1
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Sample problem 11-2
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Solution, 453
Field data, 454-Determine,
References
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454
Chapter 12. UNDERGROUND STORAGE OF GAS AND OIL
A. Ali
Azun,
G.V.
Chilingarian and
S.
Kumar
Introduction
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Storage of gas in depleted gas and
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Storage in aquifers
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458
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459
Creation of cavity and cavern design
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461
Design specifications of Eminence Salt Dome.
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463
Leach-fill procedure.
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463
Measurement
of
cavities
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468
Advantages
of
storing natural gas in salt domes
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469
Mined caverns
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470
Storage in caviti nuclear explosions
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Sample questions
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References
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472
Appendix A. TECHNOLOGY
OF
TESTING PETROLEUM PRODUCTS AND SAMPLE EXPERI-
MENTS
G.V. Chilingarian,
J.O.
Robertson,
Jr.
and C.M. Beeson
Some theoretical considerations
of
distillation
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Solution type equilibrium diagrams
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Sample problem A-1, 476-Solution, 477
Sample problem A-2, 478-Solution, 478
Raoult's and Dalton's laws
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Fractionation
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Layer type and eutectic type equilibrium diagrams
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Tests
on
fuels
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Gravity (Hydrometer) (ASTM
D
1898-80)
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Vapor pressure (Reid) (ASTM
D
323-82)
........
Key points, 483-The weight and volume re1
484--Questions, 484
Key points, 484-Sample problem A-3, 484-Solution (approximate), 485-Sample prob-
lem A-4, 485-Solution, 485-Questions, 485
Knock properties of gasoline (ASTM D 909-83; D 2623-83; D 2699-83; D 2700-83; D
Tetraethyl lead in gasoline (1 mate) (ASTM D 2541-82)
......................
Fisher TEL-meter
.............................
hips
of
two-component systems,
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2885-83;
D
2886-83)
.....
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Key points, 487
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475
476
478
479
481
482
483
483
484
485
486
487
XVIIl
Contamination of fuels
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Questions, 488
Doctortest
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Mercaptan sulfur test (D 1323-62)
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Key points, 489
Water-tolerance of aviation fuels
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Mechanism of filter plugging,
Thermal value of fuel oil (D 240-76; D 1405-64; D 2382-83)
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Key points, 491-Sample problem A-5, 491-Solution, 491-Question, 491
Method of testing, 492-Key points, 492-Questions, 492
Key points, 493-Questions, 494
Key points, 494
Key points, 495-Questions, 495
Questions, 495
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Gum
content (ASTM 381-80)
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Aniline point (D 611-82) and aniline- gravity constant
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Fluorescent-Indicator Adsorption
(FIA)
test
(D
1319-83; also see D 936-83)
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Sulfur content (Lamp) (ASTM D 1266-80) (also see D 129-64).
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Corrosion (Copper strip, 212O
F)
(ASTM
D
130-83)
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Lubrication
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Cooling
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Cleaning
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Sealing
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Viscosity.
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Tests on lubricating oils
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Viscosity index (ASTM
D
2270-79)
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Flash and fire tests
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Key points, 498-Questions, 499
Key points, 499-Questions, 499
Key points, 500-Questions, 500
Color of lubricating oils and petroleum
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Cloud and pour points (ASTM D 97-66;
also
see D 2500-81)
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Dilution
of
crankcase oil (ASTM D 322-80)
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Precipitation number of lubricating oils (ASTM D 91-81)
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Questions, 501
Carbon residue (D 189-81; D 524-81)
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Key point, 501
Ash content (ASTM D 482-80; D 874-82)
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Key points, 502-Question, 502
Neutralization number (D 664-81)
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Questions, 502
Saponification number (ASTM D 94-80)
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Key points, 503-Questions, 503
Sulfur (bomb) (ASTM D 1552-83)
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Key points, 503
Corrosion test
of
lubricating oils (copper strip at 212O
F).
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Classification and requirements of lubricating greases
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Penetration
of
lubricating greases (D 217-82)
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Dropping point of grease (D 127-63)
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Key points,
505
Key points,
505
487
488
489
489
491
491
492
494
494
495
495
495
496
496
496
496
496
497
498
499
499
500
501
501
501
502
502
503
504
504
505
505
XIX
Orsat gas analysis
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Method of analysis
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Carbon dioxide, 505-Unsaturated hydrocarbons, 506-Carbon monoxide, 506- Hydro-
gen, 506-Methane and ethane, 506-Nitrogeq 506-Combinations of combustibles, 506
-Introduction
of
gas sample, 506-Size
of
gas sample, 507-Number of passes,
507-Sample problem A-6 (Orsat analysis), 507-Sample problem A-7, 508-Solution,
508
Freezing point tests
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Freezing point of fuels (ASTM D 2386-67)
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Lowering
of
freezing point
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Key point, 508
Sample problem A-8, 509-Solution, 509-Sample pr
9-Solu
Charcoal test for gasoline content of natural gas
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Sample experiments
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Experiment A-1: Distillation of gasoline, kerosine and benzene by Engler Flask (ASTM D
86-82;
D
216-77)
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....
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.....
Instructions, 511 -Results, 51
1
-Questions, 51
1
Instructions, 512-Results, 512-Questions, 512
Instructions, 512-Data, 512-Questions, 512--Instructions, 513-Questions, 513
Experiment A-2: Distillation
of
crude oil with Hemple Column (ASTM D 285-62)
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Experiment A-3: Gravity by hydrometer and vapor pressure by the Reid Bomb
.
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Experiment A-4: Water in petroleum by distillation and water and sediments in petroleum by
centrifugation (ASTM D 1796-83;
D
4007-81; D 4006-81)
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Instructions,
5
13
-Results, 513- Questions,
5
13 -Instructions,
5
13
-
tions, 513
Instructions, 514-Results, 514-Questions, 514
Experiment A-5: Viscosity by Saybolt viscosimeter (ASTM D 88)
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Experiment A-6: Flash and fire points by tag closed tester, by open cup, and by Pensky-Martens
tester
...............................................................
Instructions, 514--Results, 514-Questions, 515-1nstructions, 515-Results, 515-Ques-
tions, 515-1nstructions, 515
Instructions, 515-Results, 516-Questions, 516--Instructions, 516--Results, 516-Ques-
tions, 516
Instructions, 516-Results, 516-Questions, 516
Instructions, 517-Results, 517-Questions, 517
Instructions, 517-Results, 517-Questions, 517
Instructions, 517-Results, 518-Questions, 518
Experiment A-7: Color of lube oil and cloud and pour points
.....
..
Experiment A-8: Dilution of crankcase oil (ASTM
D
322)
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Experiment A-9: Orsat analysis of a mixture containing oxygen
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Experiment A 10: Orsat analysis of gas mixture containing an olefin
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Experiment A-11: Orsat analysis of a mixture containing hydrogen and carbon monoxide
Experiment A-12: Solidifying point of benzene (ASTM D 852) and determination of molecular
weight from lowering
of
freezing point
of
benzene
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Experiment A-13: Corrosion-electromotive series and galvanic corrosion
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Instructions,
5
18 -Results, 5 18 -Questions, 5
18
Questions, 519
References
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505
505
508
508
508
510
511
511
512
512
513
514
514
515
516
517
517
517
518
518
520
xx
Appendix
B.
CONVERSION
OF
UNITS
J.O.
Robertson,
Jr.
and G.V. Chilinganan
Theoretical aspects
..........
....................................
521
Example 1: Dynamic viscosity conversion factor
...........
.................
521
Conversion factors
.......................
...........................
524
References
...............
........................................
541
Example
2:
Determination
of
multicomponent conversion consta
.................
522
Temperature conversion formulas
.............
....................
541
References Index
.........................................................
543
SubjectIndex
............................................................
551
Chapter
I
INTRODUCTION
GEORGE
V.
CHILINGARIAN, JOHN
0.
ROBERTSON Jr. AND CLAUDE
THIBAULT
WITH APPENDIX BY D.D. COLEMAN
In the first volume
of
this two-volume book, the writers covered the following
subjects:
(1)
overview of surface production equipment, (2) properties of hydro-
carbons,
(3)
oil and gas separation,
(4)
chemical resolution of petroleum emulsions,
(5)
electrical resolution of petroleum emulsions, (6) vapor recovery, (7) natural gas
and natural gas liquids,
(8)
oil and gas transport, (9) design of flowing well systems,
(10)
well testing,
(11)
production logging, (12) gas lift,
(13)
plunger lift,
(14)
sucker
rod pumping,
(15)
hydraulic lift, and (16) electrical submersible pumps.
In the second (present) volume the writers discuss: (2) gas measurements,
(3)
cementing,
(4)
fracturing,
(5)
acidizing, (6) gravel packing, (7) thermal recovery,
(8)
fundamentals of corrosion, (9) water quality control for subsurface injection,
(10)
offshore technology,
(11)
pollution control, and
(1
2) underground storage of oil and
gas. In addition, technology of testing petroleum products and suggested experi-
ments are presented in Appendix A, whereas conversion factors are covered in
Appendix B.
Although the completion program of a well is thoroughly planned prior to the
drilling, the actual completion (selection and use of completion fluids, replacement
of BOP valves by the Christmas tree, cementing, perforation, gravel packing, etc.) is
performed after the
well testing.
The evaluation of the well potential to produce oil
and/or gas starts when the drilling rig is still located over the wellbore and the
production string (last casing string) is yet not lowered into position. The results of
well testing, which evaluates the reservoir characteristics (bottomhole pressure and
temperature, permeability, porosity, irreducible fluid saturation, etc.), enable the
petroleum engineer to determine the proper well completion program for this
particular well. The reader is referred to an excellent treatment of this subject by
Craft et al. (1962) and Allen and Roberts (1978).
Upon perforation, drillstem test (DST) is often performed. As pointed out in
Chapter
10,
Vol.
1,
this test can be performed in either open or cased wellbores.
A production test can be periodically made during the life of the well to
determine:
(1)
the type
of
fluids being produced from the various productive
intervals, (2) the time of initiation of artificial lift or the efficiency of the artificial
lift system already in use, and
(3)
the potential of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) or
the effect of existing EOR process on the reservoir.
2
The term “production” refers to that phase
of
operations which involves the
production of well fluids (oil, water, and gas) to the surface and their treatment,
prior to the transportation through pipelines (or by tanks) to the refinery.
An
excellent treatment of this subject can
be
found in Allen and Roberts (1982). The
classical work
of
Sivalls (1977) should be consulted by all engineers involved in the
separation of oil and gas.
Recent advances in offshore oil and gas pipeline technology have been presented
by De la Mare (1985).
CHOKES
One of the more misunderstood subjects in petroleum operations is “choke”
performance. The most commonly used type
of
choke is the “wellhead” choke (see
Figs.
1-1
and 1-2).
As
a safety measure, especially in offshore operations, a choke is
installed downhole (bean). Small variations in the downstream pressure (e.g., due to
a dump separator) should not affect the tubing-head pressure
(ptf,
ptbg, or
THP).
Consequently, the fluid velocity through the choke should be greater than the speed
of
sound, which is achieved if the
THP
is at least twice as high as the average
flowline pressure. Theoretically, the tubing-head pressure, p,,,(psia), is approxi-
mately equal to:
GAUGE VALVE
-TOP
CONNECTION
SWAB VALVE
(FLOWLINE VALVE)
FLOW FITTING-
[SEE NOTEp~iwnq
WING CHOKE
I
1
CHOKE WING
VALVE
(FLOWLINE VALVE) LINE VALVE)
LINE VALVE)
Fig.
1-1. Location
of
a choke on
a
typical Christmas tree. (Courtesy
of
Sii Willis, Division
of
Smith
International, Inc.)
ESD VALVE
-
FIRE
LOOP
8
ESD SYSTEM
"MANUMATIC'
AG-MHA SURFACE
SAFETY VALVE
-
ACTUATOR CONTROL PRESS.
INSTRUMENT PRESS.
777777777
PNEUMATIC SUPPLY
3
3
PRESS.
3
3
@
d
v)
0
Fig. 1-2a. (For explanation see p.
4).
W
A
SYMBOLS
-
API
14C
'*
LSH
High Level Sensor
'*
LSL
@
Low Level Sensor
''LSHL
@
High/Low Level Sensor
**
PSH
High Pressure Sensor
**
PSL
Low Pressure Sensor
**
PSHL
HighlLow Pressure Sensor
**
FSV
Check Valve
Pressure Relief
or Safety Valve
'*
PSE
Rupture Disc
**
TSE
Fusible Material
0
Wellhead Surface
**ssv
+&)+
Safety Valve
0’
**
BDV
&
Blowdown Valve
*&
SDV
Shutdown Valve
High Temperature
Sensor
**
TSH
*
API 14D, 2nd Edition,
Nov.
1978, Used with permission
of
API
**
API
14C,
2nd Edition, Jan. 1978, Used with permission
of
API
Fig.
1-2
(continued)
b.
Location of
a
choke on an offshore production platform (safety shut-in system).
(Courtesy of Axelson, Inc.,
a
Subsidiary
of
U.S.
Industries, Inc.)