Chilingarian G.V. et al. Surface Operations in Petroleum Production, II
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215
Fig.
7-28.
A
fluidized bed combustion steam generator designed to burn coal, lignite,
or
petroleum coke,
and having a steam generating capacity
of
50,000
lb/hr at
80%
quality. (Courtesy
of
Struthers
Thermo-Flood Corporation.)
appear to offer special advantages in applications where heavy crude oil or tar
upgrading,
with resultant production
of
petroleum coke, is performed in the
producing fields before the crude is pumped to a refinery. The substitution of solid
or waste fuels for the lease crude oil, conventionally burned in oilfield steam
generators, not only provides a substantial saving in the cost of producing steam,
but makes available all of the crude oil produced by the steam injection process to
be refined into finished products, rather than necessitating the burning
of
roughly
30%
of the produced crude oil to generate the injection steam.
This
chapter has been designed to provide the reader with some of the basic
fundamentals which are involved in the steam injection process as it is applied in
the thermal enhanced recovery
of
viscous crude oils. The chapter also includes a
discussion of the design parameters involved in equipment used in the processing of
feedwater for oilfield steam generators and the steam generators used to produce the
injection steam. An extensive bibliography has been included to permit the reader to
investigate in greater depth any aspect
of
the subject matter in this chapter in which
he may have a specific interest.
276
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
(1) Determine the percentage
of
heat loss from the downhole tubing to the
surrounding strata when injecting 12,000 lb/hr of 80%-quality steam at 1000 psia
pressure through 1500 ft of 3.5-in. OD tubing installed in 6-3/4-in.
ID
by 7-3/4411.
OD casing. Assume the average temperature of the earth over the full depth of the
well to be 135
OF.
(2) Determine the heat loss from 2000 ft of 4-1/2-in. OD aboveground unin-
sulated transmission piping having 20,000 lb/hr
of
80%-quality steam at 1500 psia
pressure flowing through it. Assume an ambient air temperature
of
90°F and a
wind velocity of 15 mph. Also determine the quality of the steam at the end of the
transmission piping.
(3) Determine the friction loss for 50,000 lb/hr of 85%-quality steam at 1500
psia pressure flowing through 1200
ft
of 4-in. schedule 40 steel pipe. The pipe
contains thirty 90
O
short radius cells and ten 180
O
short radius return bends.
(4) Determine the maximum point heat flux on a tube exposed to radiant heat
and subjected to an average heat flux
of
16,500 Btu/ft3-hr. Also determine the
minimum point heat flux to which the same tube will be subjected.
(5) If a once-through steam generator
is
dual fuel fired with both natural gas and
crude oil, determine the relative thermal efficiencies for each fuel if the excess air is
10%
and the flue gas temperature is 380
OF
for both fuels.
(6) Assuming a steam generator is fired with a crude oil containing 1.5% by
weight sulfur and the excess air is controlled at lo%, determine the approximate dew
point temperature of the flue gases.
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283
Chapter
8
CORROSION IN DRILLING AND PRODUCING OPERATIONS
T.A. BERTNESS, GEORGE
V.
CHILINGARIAN and MOAYED AL-BASSAM
INTRODUCTION
In 1978, the National Bureau of Standards reported to the
U.S.
Congress that the
cost
of
corrosion in the U.S.A. in 1975 was 70 billion dollars plus or minus
30%,
and
that about
15%
of
this loss was avoidable.
This
economic loss represented about
4%
of the gross national product.
The principles of corrosion must be understood in order to effectively select
materials and to design, fabricate, and utilize metal structures for the optimum
economic life of facilities and safety in operation.
Corrosion in various forms is the major cause of drillpipe failures which add
significantly to drilling costs. The trends toward
(1)
drilling
of
deeper wells,
(2)
use
of higher strength steels,
(3)
presence of higher stresses, and
(4)
use of lower pH
drilling fluids contribute to increased susceptibility
of
metals to failure due to
corrosion.
Corrosion is the principal cause of damage to metals in wells and production
facilities. Corrosion damage results in costly maintenance of these facilities (repairs
and replacements) and the loss of production.
Definition
of
corrosion
Corrosion is defined as the chemical degradation of metals by reaction with the
environment. The destruction of metals by corrosion occurs by: (a) direct chemical
attack at elevated temperatures
(500+"F)
in a dry environment, and
(b)
by
electrochemical processes at lower temperatures in a water-wet or moist environ-
ment.
Corrosion attacks metals in drilling and producing operations through electro-
chemical processes in the presence of electrolytes and corrosive agents in drilling,
completion, packer, and produced fluids.
CORROSIVE AGENTS IN DRILLING AND PRODUCING OPERATIONS
The components in fluids which promote the corrosion of steel in drilling and
producing operations are oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, salts, and
organic acids. Destruction of metals is influenced by various physical and chemical
factors which localize and increase corrosion damage.
284
The conditions which promote corrosion include:
(a) Energy differences in the form of stress gradients or chemical reactivities
(b) Differences in concentration of salts or other corrodants in the electrolytic
(c) Differences in the amount of deposits, either solid or liquid, on the metal
(d) Temperature gradients over the surface of the metal in contact with a
(e) Compositional differences in the metal surface.
across the metal surface in contact with a corrosive solution.
solutions.
surfaces, which are insoluble in the electrolytic solutions.
corrosive solution.
REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION
Corrosion continues provided electrically conductive metal and solution circuits
are available to bring corrodants to the anodic and cathodic sites.
Four conditions must be present to complete the electrochemical reactions and
corrosion circuit:
(1)
Presence of a driving force or electrical potential. Difference in reaction
potentials at two sites on the metal surface must be sufficient to drive electrons
through the metal, surface films, and liquid components of the corrosion circuit.
(2)
Presence of an electrolyte. Corrosion occurs only when the circuit between
anodic and cathodic sites is completed by an electrolyte present in water.
(3)
Presence of both anodic and cathodic sites. Anodic and cathodic areas must
be present to support the simultaneous oxidation and reduction reactions at the
metal-liquid interface. Metal at the anode ionizes.
(4)
Presence of an external conductor. A complete electron-electrolytic circuit
between anodes and cathodes of the metal through (a) the metal surface films, (b)
surrounding environment, and (c) fluid-solid interfaces is necessary for the con-
tinuance of corrosion.
In the environment surrounding the metal, the presence of water provides
conducting paths for both corrodants and corrosion products. The corrodant may
be a dissolved gas, liquid, or solid. The corrosion products may be ions in solution,
which are removed from the metal surface, ions precipitated as various salts on
metal surfaces, and hydrogen gas.
ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION
The conditions needed to promote many types of corrosion can be found in most
industrial facilities. The basic electrochemical reactions, which occur simultaneously
at the cathodic and anodic areas of metal causing many forms of corrosion damage,
are as follows:
(1)
At the cathode, the hydrogen (or acid) ion
(H+)
removes electrons from the