Canale L.C.F., Mesquita R.A., Totten G.E. Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

The surface was also examined, and no evi-

dence was observed of detrimental surface

conditions, such as small cracks or defects due to

machining that could contribute to the cracking.

This is important because quenching involves

high levels of thermal and transformation

stresses, and the presence of imperfections in the

microstructure can increase the risk of cracking

the part. Imperfections act like very small

cracks. Inclusions and other surface defects

function as stress raisers.

In Fig. 31, it is possible to see evidence of

secondary cracking. It is common to ﬁnd sec-

ondary cracking that forms around the main

crack, indicating that the component was under

high stress due to thermal contraction stresses

coupled with the volumetric expansion that

accompanies the martensitic transformation.

Metallographic examination in the etched

condition is necessary to verify other micro-

structural characteristics. For steels, the most

common etchant is 2% nital (2 mL HNO

98 mL ethanol, 95%). Figure 31(b) shows the

same region of the Fig. 31(a) but in the etched

condition.

Examination of the crack proﬁles revealed no

evidence of decarburization in the crack,

although tempering oxide was observed. The

fracture surfaces of quench cracks are always

intergranular, since it is a brittle crack (Ref 37).

When cracked parts are subsequently tempered,

intergranular morphology is usually observed in

the quench crack, which is due to a thick oxide

scale from the tempering process. Its presence

means that the fracture surface was present

before the tempering process.

After these analyses, it was possible to con-

clude that quenching stresses were the main

cause of the failure, and it was recommended

that a less severe quenching condition be used.

Case Study 3: Use of Improper Steel Alloy

and Presence of Voids in a Steel Brazed Joint

(Ref 25). A reamer fabricated from an AISI

4130 steel shaft was brazed to an AISI 4130 steel

body. After quenching and tempering, cracking

was observed at the brazed joint, which propa-

gated into the reamer body.

The nominal range of chemical compositions

for AISI 4130 and 4140 steel are provided in

Table 12. Chemical analysis of the component,

which was thought to be AISI 4130, is also

shown, which conﬁrms that the wrong steel alloy

was used. The chemical analysis of the compo-

nent is consistent with that for AISI 4140.

The higher carbon content of AISI 4140

relative to AISI 4130 means greater hard-

enability and therefore greater probability for

cracking and increased distortion to occur. In

such cases, quenching should be less severe.

From these data, it would appear that the AISI

4130 steel reamer body was most likely exposed

to an excessively high cooling rate for this steel

alloy if heat treatment parameters were set for

4130 steel.

To verify the presence or absence of inclu-

sions (quantity, morphology, and distribution), a

metallographic examination in the unetched

condition was made. In this case, the examina-

tion was also made near the crack, and the results

are shown in Fig. 32.

Figure 32 did not reveal evidence of non-

metallic inclusions, although it is possible to

observe the presence of voids in the brazed joint.

These are undesirable and should be avoided,

since voids are stress raisers by amplifying the

Table 12 Chemical analysis

Material

Chemical composition, wt%

CMnSiPSCrNiMoCu

AISI 4140 0.38–0.43 0.75–1.00 0.15–0.35 0.035 0.040 0.80–1.10 0.25 0.15–0.25 ...

AISI 4130 0.28–0.33 0.40–0.60 0.15–0.35 0.035 0.040 0.80–1.10 0.25 0.15–0.25 0.35

Component 0.40 0.88 0.25 0.025 0.031 1.03 0.09 0.22 0.25

Fig. 32

Representative view of the crack propagating from

porosity or voids within the brazed joint. Unetched.

Original magniﬁcation: 100·

Steel Heat Treatment Failures due to Quenching / 275

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_255-284.pdf/Chap_08/ 18/8/2008 3:30PM Plate # 0 pg 275

stress during quenching and are nucleation sites

for crack formation in the brazed joints. This

occurs during fast cooling, leading to increased

thermal stresses in the component. Figure 32

shows that cracking initiated from porosity or

voids within the brazed joint and appears to have

propagated into the reamer body from quench-

ing stresses. Secondary cracks are also observed.

Examination of the brazed joint in the etched

condition, using 2% nital (2 mL HNO

+98 mL

ethanol, 95%), revealed the predominance of

tempered martensite and a uniform micro-

structure (Fig. 33).

From these analyses, it can be concluded that

the presence of voids (stress raisers) within the

brazed joint has nucleated cracks that propa-

gated under quenching stresses. The incorrect

steel grade increased the potential for cracking.

Case Study 4: Presence of a Seam Defect

(Ref 25, 36). An AISI 4140 steel bar cracked

after austenitization and quenching in a 20 to

21% aqueous polymer quenchant solution.

Chemical analysis conﬁrmed that the steel used

was compatible with AISI 4140. Metallographic

examination in the unetched condition was

performed on the steel near the crack, which is

shown in Fig. 34. No evidence of nonmetallic

inclusions was observed. However, examination

of the defect proﬁle revealed the presence of

seam defects. A seam defect is an unbounded

fold or lap on the surface of the metal that

appears as a crack and is usually the result of a

seam that was formed but not closed during the

working process (such as rolling, forging, etc.)

of the material. These defects typically exhibit

the presence of scale and high-temperature

oxidation adjacent to the crack, as shown in

Fig. 34.

Examination of the etched condition (2%

nital), shown in Fig. 35, reveled a uniform

cross-sectional martensitic microstructure.

Examination of the crack proﬁle revealed a seam

defect. Cracking appears to have initiated from

this defect and propagated from quenching

stresses. Evidence of decarburization (lighter

regions) and high-temperature oxidation can also

be observed within the defect proﬁle.

Thus, cracking was caused by seam defects

that nucleated crack formation, which then

propagated due to quenching stresses.

Case Study 5: Presence of Slag Inclusions

and a Lap Defect (Ref 25). Longitudinal

cracks after quenching and tempering were

obtained with an unthreaded AISI 4140 stud bolt

(25.4 mm diameter).

Fig. 33

Representative view of the brazed joint between the

reamer body (bottom) and reamer shaft (top).

Microstructure is tempered martensite. Etched with 2% nital.

Original magniﬁcation: 100·

Fig. 34

View of the identiﬁed seam defects in a bar sample of

AISI 4140. Unetched. Original magniﬁcation: 100·

Fig. 35

Aspect of the defect in the etched condition. In the

cross section, it is possible to see a uniform micro-

structure compounded by martensite. Decarburizing and high-

temperature oxidation can be observed. Etched with 2% nital.

Original magniﬁcation: 100·

276 / Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_255-284.pdf/Chap_08/ 18/8/2008 3:30PM Plate # 0 pg 276

Chemical analysis of this steel is shown in

Table 13, together with the nominal composition

range of AISI 4140 steel. These data conﬁrm that

the steel is consistent with AISI 4140.

Metallography results for the steel in the

unetched condition are shown in Fig. 36(a

and b). Large slag-type inclusions were

observed throughout the cross section, as shown

in Fig. 36(a). Figure 36(b) shows these slag-type

inclusions adjacent to the crack.

The steel test specimen used for Fig. 37 is also

unetched and shows a surface proﬁle of the

crack. A surface seam or lap-type defect is evi-

dent, and the crack appears to propagate through

or from a surface seam. A lap is a surface defect

that appears as a seam and is caused by folding

over of hot metal, ﬁns, or sharp corners and then

rolling or forging them into the surface, although

they are not welded close by the hot surfaces

involved (Ref 38). Secondary cracks are also

observed.

Those observations are important, since

quenching involves relatively high levels of

thermal and transformation stresses, and the

presence of imperfections in the microstructure

can increase the risk of cracking. Imperfections

such as inclusions and other surface defects act

as stress raisers.

Figure 38 shows the steel in the etched con-

dition (2% nital), which reveals a uniform tem-

pered martensite microstructure with a slag

inclusion stress raiser.

From those observations, it can be concluded

that cracking was caused by quenching stresses

acting upon stress-concentration sites of large

Table 13 Chemical analysis

Material

Chemical composition, wt%

CMnSiPSCrNiMoCu

AISI 4140 0.38–0.43 0.75–1.00 0.15–0.35 0.035 0.040 0.80–1.10 0.25 0.15–0.25 0.35

Sample 0.39 0.81 0.22 0.014 0.027 0.92 0.15 0.18 0.26

Fig. 36

(a) Representative view of large slag-type inclusions observed throughout the sample cross sections. Unetched. Original

magniﬁcation: 100· . (b) View of the crack proﬁle and slag-type inclusions observed adjacent to the cracking. Unetched.

Original magniﬁcation: 100·

Fig. 37

Representative view of the crack surface proﬁle.

Unetched. Original magniﬁcation: 100·

Steel Heat Treatment Failures due to Quenching / 277

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_255-284.pdf/Chap_08/ 18/8/2008 3:30PM Plate # 0 pg 277

slag inclusions adjacent to the crack and a small

seam or lap defect at the surface. Cracks were

also observed propagating from and/or through

an apparent surface seam or lap-type defect.

Case Study 6: Presence of Chemical Seg-

regation (Ref 25, 36). A press-formed steel

ﬂange made from AISI 1035 steel produced

cracks after quenching in an aqueous polymer

quenchant solution. Chemical composition for

this steel grade is provided in Table 14. Com-

parison with the actual composition of the steel

from the ﬂange conﬁrmed that it was the correct

AISI 1035 steel grade.

Cracking was observed at the press-formed

ring location. Examinations (unetched) of the

press-formed ring location were performed.

Figure 39, shows that in the unetched condition,

there is no evidence of surface imperfections or

inclusions that could be attributed to the crack-

ing of the steel.

However, examinations in the etched condi-

tion revealed a microstructure that exhibited

chemical segregation in the form of banding, as

shown in Fig. 40(a). The microstructure is non-

uniform and consists of bainite and tempered

martensite, as illustrated in Fig. 40(b).

Examination of the outer radius of the press-

formed ring revealed evidence of cracking. The

cracking appeared to be intergranular, showing

tempering oxide within the proﬁle. No evidence

of decarburization was observed. As noted

before, when cracked parts are subsequently

tempered, the intergranular morphology may

form a thick oxide scale from the tempering

process.

Quenching stresses associated with the non-

uniform microstructure, caused, in part, from a

slack quench condition or inherent chemical

segregation, have contributed to the observed

cracking. Slack quenching is related to hard-

ening of steel from the austenitizing temperature

at a rate slower than the critical cooling rate,

resulting in incomplete transformation and the

formation of one or more transformation pro-

ducts in addition to or instead of martensite.

Case Study 7: Network Carbides and

Coarse Grain Size. A low-alloy 17CrNiMo6

(0.18% C, 0.25% Si, 0.50% Mn, 1.65% Cr,

0.80% Mo, 1.55% Ni) carburized steel gear

produced cracks after carburizing, quenching,

and tempering. The carburized case was 1.8 to

2.0 mm, and the measured surface hardness was

57 to 61 HRC. After carburizing, the gear was

quenched from 840



C using an aqueous poly-

mer quenchant and subsequently double tem-

pered for 5 h at 240



C and 3 h at 260



Figure 41(a) illustrates the sectioned gear.

Examination of the cracking zone in the

etched condition (2% nital) showed that

intergranular cracking occurred in the boundary

of the coarse-grained structure, as illustrated in

Fig. 41(b). Quench cracking typically initiates

at the surface, particularly at positions where

geometrical changes occur, such as at corners,

defects, and inclusions. It always begins at the

part surface and has characteristics that are

easily recognized. The fracture surfaces of

quench cracks almost always occur inter-

granularly (Ref 37). Quench cracking is con-

sidered a complex mechanism of intergranular

fracture and can be aggravated by the various

mechanisms of grain-boundary weakening (such

as segregation of embrittlement elements to the

grain boundary) and grain size. However, it also

is heavily inﬂuenced by volumetric expansion

during transformation hardening and the

Fig. 38

Etched condition showing tempered martensite

microstructure and slag inclusion. Etched with 2%

nital. Original magniﬁcation: 100·

Table 14 Chemical analysis

Material

Chemical composition, wt%

CMnSiPSCrNiMoCu

AISI 1035 0.32–0.38 0.60–0.90 ... 0.04 0.050 ... ... ... ...

Flange 0.33 0.73 0.18 0.012 0.003 0.04 0.02 50.01 50.01

278 / Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_255-284.pdf/Chap_08/ 18/8/2008 3:30PM Plate # 0 pg 278

temperature extremes of quenching. Causes of

intergranular brittle fracture include brittle

second-phase particles and/or ﬁlms in grain

boundaries (Ref 37).

The microstructure of the carburized case was

carefully examined, which also showed the

presence of brittle network carbides in the prior-

austenitic grain boundaries. The formation of

network carbides is an indication that the carbon

potential employed was too high for the steel

concerned (Ref 39).

If, during carburizing, the austenite is super-

saturated with carbon, that is, it contains carbon

in excess of the eutectoid composition (0.8% C),

the carbide will precipitate at the grain bound-

aries during slow cooling from the carburizing

temperature. Under equilibrium cooling condi-

tions, an austenitized steel, having a carbon

content above the eutectoid carbon content, will

reject the excess carbon as carbide (Fe

C).

However, if the same austenite were to be cooled

quickly, most of the excess carbon would be

retained by the resultant martensite-austenite

structure (Ref 39).

Fig. 39

Representative view of the cracking associated with

the radius of the press-formed ring. Unetched. Orig-

inal magniﬁcation: 100·

Fig. 40

(a) Representative view of the chemical segregation (banding). Etched with 2% nital. Original magniﬁcation: 50 · . (b)

Higher magniﬁcation of the microstructure showing tempered martensite and bainite. Etched with 2% nital. Original

magniﬁcation: 400·

Fig. 41

(a) Carburized steel gear (17CrNiMo6). (b) Representative view of the cracking zone. Presence of coarse grains and inter-

granular cracking. Etched with 2% nital

Steel Heat Treatment Failures due to Quenching / 279

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_255-284.pdf/Chap_08/ 18/8/2008 3:30PM Plate # 0 pg 279

Carbides, being ceramic compounds, are

brittle. The more accelerated the diffusion of

carbon, the coarser the carbides become. Over-

sized carbides do not resist thermal ﬂuctuations,

because they are ceramic compounds; therefore,

cracking initiates due to thermal shock or fast

ramp-up and ramp-down of a furnace. Because

carbides in the network conﬁguration possess a

brittle nature, once a carbide segment of a net-

work starts cracking, crack propagation is very

fast (Ref 40).

During carburizing, it is necessary to carefully

control the carbon content of the surface case. If

this layer becomes hypereutectoid, cementite

will be present in the boundaries of the grain,

forming a network, as demonstrated in Fig. 42(a

and b).

In addition to network carbides, nonuniform

grain size (ASTM 1 and 2 ) is also observed in

Fig. 42(a and b). Nonuniform grain size is a

problem, since the hardenability of a carbon

steel may increase as much as 50% with an

increase in austenite grain size from ASTM 8

(6 to 10) to ASTM 3 (1 to 4). This phenomenon

causes a nonuniform martensitic transformation,

contributing to increased stress during quench-

ing. The effect becomes more pronounced if

the carbon content is increased at the same time

(Ref 39). These factors contributed to the

cracking observed during quenching.

Excessive carbon content (more than 0.8%)

in the carburized layer was related to the

high carburizing temperature that was used

(950



C). Higher temperatures result in greater

solubility of the carbon in the austenite

phase. Grain growth can also be related to high

process temperature and steel chemistry.

Alloying elements such as aluminum, niobium,

vanadium, or titanium function as grain-

growth inhibitors, and the steel grade used

in this case did not contain these elements

(Ref 38, 39).

Therefore, it was concluded that the presence

of network carbides and nonuniform grain size,

coupled with quenching stresses, was respon-

sible for the observed cracking.

Case Study 8: Presence of Stringer Inclu-

sions and Chemical Segregation (Ref 25).

Pins of AISI 1144 steel (resulfurized steel grade)

were through hardened prior to induction hard-

ening of the pin tip, and cracking and soft spots

were obtained. The nominal chemical compo-

sition of AISI 1144 steel is provided in Table 15

along with the chemical analysis of the com-

ponent. These results conﬁrm that the steel

used for the component is consistent with AISI

1144.

Examinations in the unetched condition

revealed evidence of many long stringer inclu-

sions, which were oriented in streaks or bands

that were parallel (or longitudinal) with respect

to the length of the pins. A stringer inclusion

occurs when an impurity, either metallic or

nonmetallic, is trapped in the ingot and is elon-

gated in the direction of hot working. It appears

as a narrow streak that is parallel to the direction

of hot working (Ref 38). Stringers were also

observed extending to the pin tip surface within

the induction-hardened case (Fig. 43). Stringers

can, like other inclusions, act as stress raisers.

At positions that may be far removed from those

defects, the applied stress (applied load/cross-

sectional area) may be normal and will not pose

any problem. However, if the applied stress is

Fig. 42

(a) Microstructure of the tooth top showing boundary carbides and coarse grains. (b) Detail of the brittle carbide network

showing prior-austenitic grain size and tempered martensite

280 / Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_255-284.pdf/Chap_08/ 18/8/2008 3:31PM Plate # 0 pg 280

less than the elastic limit in the vicinity of small

defects or cracks, the stress is ampliﬁed. There-

fore, defects such as stringer inclusions are

called stress raisers and are very important dur-

ing quenching as well as during use.

Examination in the etched condition showed

that the microstructures consisted of many areas

of chemical segregation. Unavoidable chemical

segregation of alloying elements occurs during

the solidiﬁcation of an ingot in the steel pro-

duction process. If this occurs on a grain-sized

scale, it is called microsegregation. If chemical

segregation occurs on a much larger ingot-sized

scale, it is referred to as macrosegregation, and

the inhomogeneous steel structure will possess

nonuniform properties throughout, particularly

in the direction that is transverse to the hot

working direction (Ref 38). In the AISI 1144

steel sample being analyzed, the chemical seg-

regation appeared as ferrite bands and was

associated with the stringer inclusions, which

can be associated with the soft spots that also can

contribute to cracking (Fig. 44a and b). It should

be noted that stringer inclusions are not un-

common for resulfurized steel grades, because

the distribution and shape of these inclusions are

often difﬁcult variables to control.

The fracture pattern of the pin tips sub-

sequent to induction hardening appears to have

propagated from the stringer inclusions and

associated chemical segregation in the presence

of quenching stresses.

Case Study 9: Decarburization and Oxi-

dized Grain Boundary (Ref 25, 36). A heavy

wall tube section of AISI 4140 tube stock pro-

duced cracks after quenching and tempering.

The component was austenitized at 843



C for

2 h and then quenched into an aqueous polymer

solution (25%) and tempered at 565



C for 2 h,

then air cooled. Chemical analysis is shown in

Table 16 together with the nominal composition

of AISI 4140. These data conﬁrm that the proper

steel alloy was used.

Although it is not shown here, the steel in the

unetched condition revealed no evidence of a

large number of nonmetallic inclusions. Exam-

ination in the etched condition of the cross-

sectional microstructure shows that it consists of

uniform tempered martensite (Fig. 45).

However, examination of the surface in the

etched condition revealed high-temperature

grain-boundary oxidation (Fig. 46). High-

temperature grain-boundary oxidation occurs

when grain boundaries starting at the surface of

the part are oxidized. Normally, when parts are

being heat treated, such as during carburization

or austenitization (hardening), if the furnace

contains free oxygen from air leakage (ingres-

sion) into the furnace or excessive vapor or

steam is present, oxygen will diffuse into the sur-

face of the material, resulting in oxidation of the

grain boundaries and degradation of the engi-

neering properties at the surface (Ref 40). High-

temperature grain-boundary oxidation also acts

as a stress-concentration site for crack initiation.

The surface proﬁle in the etched condition

(Fig. 47) revealed evidence of partial decarbur-

ization and tempering oxide within the cracks.

When cracked parts are subsequently tempered,

the intergranular morphology may form a thick

oxide scale from the tempering process.

Decarburization appears when steels are

processed by forming, forging, heat treating, or

any other thermal treatments where the material

temperature may exceed 760



C for some time

with no atmospheric protection. If this occurs,

the steel may start losing carbon from the heated

surfaces, leading to a decarburized surface. This

Fig. 43

Aspect of the stringer inclusions observed within

the pin tip location. Unetched. Original magniﬁca-

tion: 100·

Table 15 Chemical analysis

Material

Chemical composition, wt%

CMnSiPSCrNiMoCu

AISI 1144 0.40–0.48 1.35–1.65 ... 0.04 0.24–0.33 ... ... ... ...

Pin 0.44 1.50 0.23 0.008 0.29 0.05 0.02 0.02 50.01

Steel Heat Treatment Failures due to Quenching / 281

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_255-284.pdf/Chap_08/ 18/8/2008 3:31PM Plate # 0 pg 281

Table 16 Chemical analysis

Material

Chemical composition, wt%

CMnSiPSCrNiMoCu

AISI 4140 0.38–0.43 0.75–1.00 0.15–0.35 0.035 0.040 0.80–1.10 0.25 0.15–0.25 0.35

Sample 0.44 0.97 0.24 0.012 0.016 1.06 0.12 0.19 0.18

Fig. 44

View of the induction-hardened pin tip location. Ferrite bands and inclusions can be observed. Etched with 3% nital.

(a) Original magniﬁcation: 100·. (b) Original magniﬁcation: 200·

Fig. 45

Cross-sectional microstructure showing uniform

tempered martensite. Etched with 2% nital. Original

magniﬁcation: 400·

Fig. 46

Surface proﬁle adjacent to the cracking. Evidence of

high-temperature grain-boundary oxidation. Etched

with 2% nital. Original magniﬁcation: 400·

282 / Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_255-284.pdf/Chap_08/ 18/8/2008 3:31PM Plate # 0 pg 282

decarburized layer can be partial or full and can

degrade the engineering properties of the surface

relative to the matrix of the material.

Based on this evidence, the identiﬁed crack-

ing was attributed to quenching stresses acting

on the oxidized surface grain boundaries.

REFERENCES

1. Y. Toshioka, Heat Treatment Deformation

of Steel Products, Mater. Sci. Technol., Vol

1, 1985, p 883–892

2. S. Mocarski, Carburizing and Its Control—

I. Basic Considerations, Ind. Heat., Vol 41

(No. 5), 1974, p 58–70

3. A. Bavaro, Heat Treatments and Deforma-

tion, Trait. Therm., Vol 240, 1990, p 37–41

4. F. Legat, Why Does Steel Crack During

Quenching, Kovine Zlitine Technol., Vol 32

(No. 3–4), 1998, p 273–276

5. R.W. Bohl, “Difﬁculties and Imperfections

Associated with Heat Treated Steel,”

MEI Course 10, Lesson 13, ASM Inter-

national

6. K.E. Thelning, Steel and Its Heat Treat-

ment, Butterworths, London, U.K., 1985

7. H. Berns, Distortion and Crack Formation

by Heat Treatment of Tools, Radex

Rundsch., Vol 1, 1989, p 40–57

8. T. Kunitake and S. Susigawa, Sumitomo

Search, May 1971, p 16–25

9. R.R. Blackwood and L.M. Jarvis, Ind.

Heat., March 1991, p 28–31

10. H. Fujio, T. Aida, and Y. Masumoto, Bull.

Jpn. Soc. Mech. Eng., Vol 20, 1977, p 1655–

1662

11. Yu.A. Geller and V.P. Brimene, Steel

USSR, July 1971

12. G.E. Totten and M.A.H. Howes, Chapter

5—Distortion of Heat Treated Components,

Steel Heat Treatment Handbook, G.E.

Totten and M.A.H. Howes, Ed., Marcel

Dekker Inc., New York, NY, 1997, p 292

13. C.E. Bates, G.E. Totten, and R.L. Brennan,

Quenching of Steel, Heat Treating, Vol 4,

ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1991,

p 67–120

14. D.A. Canonico, Stress-Relief in Heat

Treating of Steel, Heat Treating, Vol 4,

ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1991,

p 33–34

15. W.T. Cook, A Review of Selected Steel-

Related Factors Controlling Distortion in

Heat-Treatable Steels, Heat Treat. Met.,

Vol 26 (No. 2), p 27–36

16. Y. Toshioka, Heat Treatment Deformation

of Steel Products, Mater. Sci. Technol.,

Vol 1, Oct 1985, p 1883–1892

17. A. Thuvander and A. Melander, Calculation

of Distortion During Quenching of a Low

Carbon Steel, First ASM Heat Treatment

and Surface Engineering Conference in

Europe (Proc.), Part 2, Trans. Tech. Pub-

lications, 1992, p 767–782

18. P.C. Clarke, Close-Tolerance Heat Treat-

ment of Gears, Heat Treat. Met., Vol 25

(No. 3), 1998, p 61–64

19. R.F. Kern, Thinking Through to Successful

Heat Treatment, Met. Eng. Q., Vol 11

(No. 1), 1971, p 1–4

20. R. Kern, Distortion and Cracking, II: Dis-

tortion from Quenching, Heat Treat., March

1985, p 41–45

21. R. F. Kern and M. E. Suess, Steel Selection:

A Guide for Improving Performance and

Proﬁts, Wiley-Interscience, New York,

1970, p 15–50

22. R. Kern, Distortion and Cracking, III: How

to Control Cracking, Heat Treat., April

1985, p 38–42

23. H.-J. Chen and Z.W. Jiang, Microstructure

Improvement and Low-Temperature Quen-

ching of Dies Made of Cr12-Type Steel,

Jinshu Rechuli, No. 8, 1992, p 39–41

Fig. 47

View of the crack proﬁle showing tempering oxide

within the crack and decarburization at the surface.

Etched with 2% nital. Original magniﬁcation: 50·

Steel Heat Treatment Failures due to Quenching / 283

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_255-284.pdf/Chap_08/ 18/8/2008 3:31PM Plate # 0 pg 283

24. H.-H. Shao, Analysis of the Causes of

Cracking of a 12% Cr Steel Cold Die During

Heat Treatment, Jinshu Rechuli, No. 11,

1995, p 43

25. R.R. Blackwood, L.M. Jarvis, D.G. Hoff-

man, and G.E. Totten, Conditions Leading

to Quench Cracking Other Than Severity of

Quench, Heat Treating Including the Liu

Dai Memorial Symposium, Proc. of the

18th Conf., R.A. Wallis and H.W. Walton,

Ed., ASM International, 1998, p 575–585

26. X. Cheng and S. He, Analysis of Quenching

Cracks in Machine-Tool Pistons Under

Supersonic Frequency Induction Harden-

ing, Heat Treat. Met. (China), No. 4, 1991,

p 51–52

27. J.R. Davis, ASM Materials Engineering

Dictionary, ASM International, 1992, p 407

28. P.F. Stratton, N. Saxena, and R. Jain, Re-

quirements for Gas Quenching Systems,

Heat Treat. Met., Vol 24 (No. 3), 1997,

p 60–63

29. H.M. Tensi, G.E. Totten, and G.M.

Webster, Proposal to Monitor Agitation

of Production Quench Tanks, Heat

Treating: Including the 1997 International

Induction Heat Treating Symposium—Proc.

of the 17th Conf., D.L. Milam, D.A. Poteet,

G.D. Pfaffmann, V. Rudnev, A. Muehl-

bauer, and W.B. Albert, Ed., ASM Inter-

national, 1997, p 423–441

30. S. Owaku, Quench Distortion of Steel Parts,

Netsu Shori (J. Jpn. Soc. Heat Treat.), Vol

32 (No. 4), 1992, p 198–202

31. R.T. Von Bergen, The Effects of Quenchant

Media Selection on the Distortion of

Engineered Steel Parts, Quenching and

Distortion Control, G.E. Totten, Ed., ASM

International, 1992, p 275–282

32. H.M. Tensi, A. Stich, and G.E. Totten,

Fundamentals of Quenching, Met. Heat

Treat., Mar/April 1995, p 20–28

33. V.D. Kalner and S.A. Yurasov, Internal

Oxidation During Carburizing, Met. Sci.

Heat Treat. (USSR), Vol 12 (No. 6), June

1970, p 451–454

34. A.A. Polyakov, Quenching Properties of

Parts Having Stress Concentrators, Met.

Sci. Heat Treat., Vol 37 (No. 7–8), 1995,

p 324–325

35. W. Becker, Fatigue Failure, Failure

Analysis and Prevention., Vol 11 ASM

Handbook, ASM International, 2002,

p 700–727

36. L.C.F. Canale, G.E. Totten, R.R. Black-

wood, L.M. Jarvis, and D.G. Hoffman, “An

Overview of Non-Quench Related Pro-

blems Often Attributed to the Quenchant

and Quenching Process,” 59th Congresso

Anual da ABM-Internacional, July 19–22,

2004 (Sa

o Paulo, SP, Brazil)

37. S. Lampman, Intergranular Fracture, Fail-

ure Analysis and Prevention, Vol 11, ASM

Handbook, ASM International, 2002,

p 641–649

38. “Manufacturing Techniques,” http://www.

mslab.boun.edu.tr/Heat_treatment.doc (Ac-

cessed April 24, 2007)

39 G. Parrish, The Inﬂuence of Microstructure

and the Properties of Case-Carburized

Components, ASM International, 1980,

p 236

40. A. Abada, Why Do Heat-Resistant Alloys

Fail?, Ind. Heat., Oct 2002, p 55–59

284 / Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Name ///sr-nova/Dclabs_wip/Failure_Analysis/5113_255-284.pdf/Chap_08/ 18/8/2008 3:31PM Plate # 0 pg 284