Bhushan B. Handbook of Micro/Nano Tribology, Second Edition

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Handbook of Micro/Nanotribology.

Ed. Bharat Bhushan

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999

Acquiring Editor: Cindy Carelli

Project Editor: Andrea Demby

Marketing Manager: Jane Stark

Cover design: Dawn Boyd

PrePress: Carlos Esser

Manufacturing: Lisa Spreckelson

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Handbook of micro/nanotribology / edited by Bharat Bhushan. -- 2nd ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-8493-8402-8 (alk. paper)

1. Tribology--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Bhushan, Bharat, 1949- .

TJ1075.H245 1999

621.8

′

9--dc21

98-24466

CIP

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Foreword

The invention of the scanning tunneling microscope has led to an explosion of

a family that is now called scanning probe microscopes (SPMs). The most

popular instrument in this family is the atomic force microscope (AFM).

According to some estimates, sales of SPMs in 1993 were about 100 million

U.S. dollars (about 2,000 units installed to date) worldwide. The biggest portion

of this results from AFM sales, although the ﬁrst ideas and preliminary results

were introduced to the scientiﬁc community only a few years ago (1986). The

whole ﬁeld of SPM is not very old (the ﬁrst operation of STM was in 1981)

and still is in a rapidly evolving state. The scientiﬁc industrial applications

include quality control in the semiconductor industry and related research,

molecular biology and chemistry, medical studies, materials science, and the ﬁeld of information storage

systems.

Soon after the invention of the AFM it was discovered that part of the information in the images

resulted from friction and that the instrument could be used as a tool for tribology. In general, SPMs

are now used intensively in this ﬁeld. Researchers can image single lubricant molecules and their agglom-

eration and measure surface topography, adhesion, friction, wear, lubricant ﬁlm thickness, and mechan-

ical properties all on a micrometer to nanometer scale.

With the advent of more powerful computers, atomic-scale simulations have been conducted of

tribological phenomena. Simulations have been able to predict the observed phenomena. Development

of the ﬁeld of micro/nanotribology has attracted numerous physicists and chemists. This is a ﬁeld I

personally know very little about. I am, however, very excited that SPMs have had such an immense

impact on the ﬁeld of tribology.

I congratulate Professor Bharat Bhushan in helping to develop this ﬁeld of micro/nanotribology. The

Handbook of Micro/Nanotribology

is very timely and I expect that it will be well received by the interna-

tional scientiﬁc community. With best wishes.

Prof. Dr. Gerd Binnig

IBM Research Division

Munich, Germany

Nobel Laureate Physics, 1986

Preface

Second Edition, 1999

The ﬁrst edition of the

Handbook of Micro/Nanotribology

was published in the Spring of 1995. Soon after

its publication, the ﬁrst-of-a-kind monograph became a reference book for the novice, as well as experts,

in the emerging ﬁeld of micro/nanotribology. Since the ﬁeld is evolving very rapidly, we felt that the

monograph needed a second edition.

The second edition is totally revised. The scope of the ﬁrst edition has been expanded. In the ﬁrst

part, Basic Studies, two new chapters on AFM Instrumentation and Tips and Surface Forces and Adhesion

have been added. In the second part, Applications, four new chapters on Design and Construction of

Magnetic Storage Devices, Microdynamic Devices and Systems, Mechanical Properties of Materials in

Microstructure Technology, and Micro/Nanotribology and Micro/Nanomechanics of MEMS Devices

have been added. The content of each original chapter has been revised and broadened. In many cases,

new authors were invited to contribute chapters on topics covered in the ﬁrst edition. Of the 16 chapters

in the book — 11 in Basic Studies and ﬁve in Applications — 11 are written by new contributors, whereas

ﬁve chapters have been thoroughly revised by the original authors.

The organization of the Handbook is straightforward. It is divided into two parts: Part I covers the

basic studies and Part II encompasses design, construction, and applications to magnetic storage devices

and MEMS. The introduction chapter starts out with a deﬁnition and the evolution of micro/nanotri-

bology, description of various measurement techniques, and description of various industrial applications

where the study of tribology, on a nanoscale, is critical. After this chapter, the subject matter is presented

as follows: an overview of AFM instrumentation and tips; current understanding of surface physics and

description of methods used to physically and chemically characterize solid surfaces; roughness charac-

terization and static contact models using fractal analysis; surface forces and adhesion; introduction of

sliding at the interface and study of friction on an atomic scale; study of scratching and wear as a result

of sliding, applications to nanofabrication/nanomachining, as well as nano/picoindentation; study of

lubricants used to minimize friction and wear; surface forces and microrheology of thin liquid ﬁlms;

measurement of nanomechanical properties of surfaces and thin ﬁlms; and atomic-scale simulations of

interfacial phenomena.

Part II includes material in the following order: design and construction of magnetic storage devices;

microdynamic devices and systems; micro/nanotribology and micro/nano mechanics of magnetic storage

devices; mechanical properties of materials in microstructure technology; and micro/nanotribology and

micro/nanomechanics of MEMS devices.

The Handbook is intended for graduate students of tribology and researchers who are active or intend

to become so in this ﬁeld. This book should serve as an excellent text for a graduate course in micro/nan-

otribology. For a reduced scope of the course, Chapters 2, 3, and 10 (Part I) and Chapters 12 and 13

(Part II) can be eliminated. For a more concise course, Chapter 4 may also be eliminated.

I would like to thank the authors for their excellent contributions in a timely manner. My secretary,

Kathleen Tucker, patiently typed six of the chapters contributed by me to this book. Last, but not least,

I wish to thank my wife, Sudha, my son, Ankur, and my daughter, Noopur, who have been very forbearing

during the preparation of this book.

Bharat Bhushan

Powell, Ohio

Preface

First Edition, 1995

Tribology is the science and technology of two interacting surfaces in relative motion and of related

subjects and practices. The popular equivalent is friction, wear, and lubrication. The advent of new

techniques to measure surface topography, adhesion, friction, wear, lubricant-ﬁlm thickness, and

mechanical properties all on a micro to nanometer scale, to image lubricant molecules and availability

of supercomputers to conduct atomic-scale simulations has led to development of a new ﬁeld referred

to as Microtribology, Nanotribology, Molecular Tribology, or Atomic-Scale Tribology. This ﬁeld is con-

cerned with experimental and theoretical investigations of processes ranging from atomic and molecular

scales to microscale, occurring during adhesion, friction, wear, and thin-ﬁlm lubrication at sliding

surfaces. These studies are needed to develop fundamental understanding of interfacial phenomena on

a small scale and to study interfacial phenomena in micro- and nano structures used in magnetic storage

systems, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and other industrial applications. The components

used in micro- and nano structures are very light (on the order of few micrograms) and operate under

very light loads (on the order of few micrograms to few milligrams). As a result, friction and wear

(nanoscopic wear) of lightly loaded micro/nano components are highly dependent on the surface inter-

actions (few atomic layers). These structures are generally lubricated with molecularly thin ﬁlms. Micro-

and nanotribological techniques are ideal to study friction and wear processes of micro/nano structures.

These studies are also valuable in the fundamental understanding of interfacial phenomena in macro-

structures to provide a bridge between science and engineering. Friction and wear on micro- and

nanoscales have been found to be generally smaller compared to that at macroscales. Therefore, micro-

nanotribological studies may identify regimes for ultra-low friction and zero wear.

The ﬁeld of tribology is truly interdisciplinary. Until recently, it has been dominated by mechanical

and chemical engineers who have conducted macro tests to predict friction and wear lives in machine

components and devised new lubricants to minimize friction and wear. Development of the ﬁeld of

micro/nanotribology has attracted many more physicists and chemists who have signiﬁcantly contributed

to the fundamental understanding of friction and wear processes on an atomic scale. Thus, tribology is

now studied by both engineers and scientists. The micro/nanotribology ﬁeld is growing rapidly and it

has become fashionable to call oneself a “tribologist”. Since 1991, international conferences and courses

have been organized on this new ﬁeld of micro/nanotribology.

We felt a need to develop a

handbook of micro/nano tribology

. This ﬁrst-of-a-kind monograph

presents the state-of-the-art of the micro/nanotribology ﬁeld by the leading international researchers. In

each chapter we start with macroconcepts leading to microconcepts. We assume that the reader is not

expert in the ﬁeld of microtribology, but has some knowledge of macrotribology. It covers characterization

of solid surfaces, various measurement techniques and their applications, and theoretical modeling of

interfaces.

The organization of the handbook is straightforward. The book is divided into two parts. Part I covers

the basic studies and Part II covers applications to magnetic storage devices and MEMS. Part I includes

ten chapters. The introduction chapter starts out with a deﬁnition and evolution of micro/nanotribology,

description of various measurement techniques, and description of various industrial applications where

the study of tribology, on a nanoscale, is critical. Following the introduction chapter, subject matter is

presented in the following order: description of methods used to physically and chemically characterize

solid surfaces, roughness characterization and static contact models using fractal analysis, introduction

of sliding at the interface and study of friction, study of wear as a result of sliding, study of lubricants

used to minimize friction and wear, imaging of lubricant molecules, surface forces and microrheology

of thin liquid ﬁlms, measurement of micromechanical properties of surfaces and thin ﬁlms, and atomic-

scale simulations of interfacial phenomena. Part II includes three chapters. Subject matter is presented

in the following order: micro/nanotribology and micro/nano mechanics of magnetic storage devices and

MEMS, role of particulate contaminants in tribology and applications to magnetic storage devices and

MEMS, and modeling of hydrodynamic lubrication with molecularly thin gas ﬁlms and applications to

MEMS.

The handbook is intended for graduate students of tribology and research workers who are active or

intend to become active in this ﬁeld. This book should serve as an excellent text for a graduate course

in micro/nanotribology. For a reduced scope of the course, Chapters 2 and 9 from Part I and Chapters 11

to 13 from Part II can be eliminated. For a further reduction, Chapter 3 from Part I can also be eliminated.

I would like to thank the authors for their excellent contributions in a timely manner. And I wish to

thank my wife, Sudha, my son, Ankur, and my daughter, Noopur, who have been very forbearing during

the preparation of this book.

Bharat Bhushan

Powell, Ohio

The Editor

Bharat Bhushan, Ph.D.,

a pioneer in tribology and the mechanics of magnetic

storage devices, is an internationally recognized expert in the general ﬁelds of

conventional tribology and micro/nanotribology and one of the most proliﬁc

authors. He is presently an Ohio Eminent Scholar and The Howard D. Win-

bigler Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and the Director

of Computer Microtribology and Contamination Laboratory at The Ohio State

University, Columbus.

He received a Masters in mechanical engineering from the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology, a Masters in mechanics and a Ph.D. in mechanical

engineering from the University of Colorado at Boulder, an MBA from Rens-

selaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, NY, a Doctor Technicae from the University

of Trondheim, Norway, and a Habilitate Doctor of Technical Sciences from the

Warsaw University of Technology in Poland. He is a registered professional engineer (mechanical).

He has authored ﬁve technical books, 22 handbook chapters, more than 350 technical papers in refereed

journals, more than 60 technical reports, edited more than 24 books, and holds seven U.S. patents. He

is founding editor-in-chief of the

World Scientiﬁc Advances in Information Storage Systems Series, The

CRC Press Mechanics and Materials Science Series

, and the

Journal of Information Storage and Processing

Systems

. He has given more than 175 invited presentations on ﬁve continents, including several keynote

addresses at major international conferences. He is an accomplished organizer. He organized the ﬁrst

symposium on Tribology and Mechanics of Magnetic Storage Systems in 1984 and the ﬁrst international

symposium on Advances in Information Storage Systems in 1990. He continues to organize and chair

the AISS symposia annually. He founded an ASME Information Storage and Processing Systems Division

and is the founding chair. His biography has been listed in over two dozen

Who’s Who

books, including

Who’s Who in the World.

He has received more than a dozen awards for his contributions to science and

technology from professional societies, industry, and U.S. government agencies. He is a foreign member

of the Byelorussian Academy of Engineering and Technology, the Russian Engineering Academy and the

Ukrainian Academy of Transportation, a senior member of IEEE, and a member of STLE, NSPE, Sigma

Xi, and Tau Beta Pi.

Dr. Bhushan has worked for the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute

of Technology, Cambridge, MA; Automotive Specialists, Denver, CO; the R & D Division of Mechanical

Technology, Inc., Latham, NY; the Technology Services Division of SKF Industries, Inc., King of Prussia,

PA; the General Products Division Laboratory of IBM Corporation, Tucson, AZ; the Almaden Research

Center of IBM Corporation, San Jose, CA; and the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the

University of California, Berkeley.

He is married and has two children. His hobbies include music, photography, hiking, and traveling.