Wilamowski B.M., Irwin J.D. The Industrial Electronics Handbook. Second Edition: Industrial Communication Systems

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6-8 Industrial Communication Systems

industrial.sensor.node.is.composed.of.four.basic.components:.(1).sensor,.(2).processor,.(3).transceiver,.

and.(4).pow

.sou

rce:

•

. Sen

sor:

.Sen

sors

.are.har

dware

.dev

ices

.tha

.pro

duce

.mea

surable

.res

ponse

.to.a.cha

nge

.in.a.phy

sical

con

dition,

.e.g

.tem

perature,

.pre

ssure,

.vol

tage,

.cur

rent,

.etc

. e.ana

log

.sign

als

.pro

duced

.by.the.

sen

sors

.bas

.on.the.obs

erved

.phe

nomenon

.are.con

verted

.to.dig

ital

.sign

als

.by.the.ana

log-to-

digital

.con

verter

.(AD

.and.sen

.to.the.pro

cessor

.for.fur

ther

.pro

cessing.

.Sev

eral

.sou

rces

.of.pow

con

sumption

.in.sen

sors

.are.(1).sign

.sam

pling

.and.con

version

.of.phy

sical

.sign

als

.to.ele

ctrical

one

.(2

)

.sig

nal

.co

nditioning,

.an

.(3

)

.an

alog-to-digital

.co

nversion.

•

. Pro

cessor:

. e.pro

cessing

.uni

.whi

.is.gen

erally

.ass

ociated

.wit

.a.sma

.stor

age

.uni

.per

forms

tasks,.processes.data,.and.controls.the.functionality.of.other.components.in.the.sensor.node.

•

. Tra

nsceiver:

.A.tra

nsceiver

.uni

.con

nects

.the.nod

.to.the.net

work.

.Gen

erally,

.rad

ios

.use

.in.the.

tra

nsceivers

.of.ind

ustrial

.sen

sor

.nod

.ope

rate

.in.fou

.di

erent

.mod

es:

.(i).tra

nsmit,

.(ii

)

.rec

eive,

(ii

.idl

.and.(iv

)

.sle

ep.

.Rad

ios

.ope

rating

.in.idl

.mod

.res

ult

.in.pow

.con

sumption

.alm

ost

.equ

to.pow

.con

sumed

.in.rec

eive

.mod

.Hen

ce,

.it.is.bet

ter

.to.com

pletely

.shu

.dow

.the.rad

ios

.rat

her

tha

.run.it.in.the.idl

.mod

.whe

.it.is.not.tra

nsmitting

.or.rec

eiving.

.A.sign

icant

.amo

unt

.of.

pow

.is.con

sumed

.whe

.swi

tching

.fro

.sle

.mod

.to.tra

nsmit

.mod

.for.tra

nsmitting

.a.pac

ket.

•

. Pow

er source:

.One.of.the.mos

.imp

ortant

.com

ponents

.of.an.ind

ustrial

.sen

sor

.nod

.is.the.pow

sou

rce.

.In.sen

sor

.net

works,

.pow

.con

sumption

.is.gen

erally

.div

ided

.into.thr

.dom

ains:

.sen

ing,

.dat

.pro

cessing,

.and.com

munication.

.Com

pared

.to.sen

sing

.and.dat

.pro

cessing,

.muc

.mor

ene

rgy

.is.req

uired

.for.dat

.com

munication

.in.a.typ

ical

.sen

sor

.nod

.For.exa

mple,

.the.ene

rgy

.cos

of.tra

nsmitting

.1.kb.of.dat

.ove

.a.dis

tance

.of.100.m.is.app

roximately

.the.sam

.as.tha

.for.exe

cut-

ing

.3.mil

lion

.ins

tructions

.by.a.100.mil

lion

.ins

tructions

.per.sec

ond/W

.pro

cessor

.[38

.Hen

ce,

.loc

dat

.pr

ocessing

.is.cr

ucial

.in.mi

nimizing

.po

wer

.co

nsumption

.in.IW

SNs.

Generally,

.the.lif

etime

.of.IWS

.sho

.a.str

ong

.dep

endence

.on.bat

tery

.cap

acity.

.Fur

thermore,

.in.a.

mul

ti-hop

.ad.hoc.sen

sor

.net

work,

.eac

.nod

.pla

.the.dua

.rol

.of.dat

.ori

ginator

.and.dat

.rou

ter.

. e.

fai

lure

.of.a.few.nod

.can.cau

.topo

logical

.cha

nges

.and.mig

.req

uire

.rer

outing

.of.dat

.pac

kets

.and.

reo

rganization

.of.the.net

work.

.In.thi

.reg

ard,

.pow

.con

servation

.and.man

agement

.tak

.on.add

itional

sign

icance.

.Due.to.the

.rea

sons,

.tec

hnical

.app

roaches

.for.pro

longing

.the.lif

etime

.of.bat

tery-powered

sen

sors

.hav

.bee

.the.foc

.of.a.vas

.amo

unt

.of.lit

erature

.in.sen

sor

.net

works.

. es

.app

roaches

.inc

lude

ene

rgy-aware

.pro

tocol

.dev

elopment

.for.sen

sor

.net

work

.com

munications

.and.har

dware

.opti

mizations,

suc

.as.sle

eping

.sch

edules

.to.kee

.ele

ctronics

.ina

ctive

.mos

.of.the.tim

.dyn

amic

.opti

mization

.of.vol

age,

.an

.cl

ock

.ra

te.

All

.the

.res

earch

.and.dev

elopment

.eo

rts

.in.bot

.aca

demy

.and.ind

ustry

.lea

.to.sev

eral

.com

mer-

cially

.ava

ilable

.in

dustrial

.se

nsor

.ha

rdware

.pla

tforms

.and.com

ponents.

.In.the.rec

ent

.sen

sor

.rad

.chi

ps,

suc

.as.CC2

430

.and.EM2

50,

.the.sys

tem-on-chip

.(SO

.tec

hnology

.has.bee

.use

.for.low.pow

.con

sumption

.by.int

egrating

.a.com

plete

.sys

tem

.on.a.sing

.chi

.For.exa

mple,

.EM2

.fro

.Embe

.pro

vides

.a.Zig

Bee

.SOC.tha

.comb

ines

.a.2.4.GHz.IEE

.802

.15.4

.com

pliant

.rad

.tra

nsceiver

.wit

.a.16.bit.

mic

roprocessor

.to.ext

end

.bat

tery

.lif

etime.

.Spec

ically,

.SOC.sol

utions

.pro

vide

.sign

icant

.amo

unt

.of.

pow

.con

sumption

.imp

rovement

.in.the.sle

.mod

.but.mod

est

.imp

rovement

.in.tra

nsmission

.(Tx

)

.and.

rec

eiving

.(T

.mo

des.

.a.mul

ti-hop

.IWS

.com

municating

.nod

.are.lin

ked

.by.a.wir

eless

.med

ium,

.whi

.can.be.for

med

by.rad

io,

.inf

rared,

.or.opti

cal

.med

.[3]

.To.ena

ble

.glo

bal

.ope

ration

.of.the

.net

works,

.the.cho

sen

.tra

ns-

mission

.med

ium

.mus

.be.ava

ilable

.wor

ldwide.

.An.ove

rview

.of.com

mercially

.ava

ilable

.rad

.chi

.and.

sen

sor

.ha

rdware

.pl

atforms

.fo

.IW

SNs

.is.gi

ven

.in.Ta

bles

.6.

.an

.6.

.re

spectively.

6.5.1.2

radi

tech

nologies

.ind

ustrial

.env

ironments,

.the.cov

erage

.are

.of.WSN.as.wel

.as.the.rel

iability

.of.the.dat

.may.su

fro

.noi

se,

.co-

channel

.int

erferences,

.mul

tipath

.pro

pagation,

.and.oth

.int

erferers

.[28

.For.exa

mple,

the.sig

nal

.str

ength

.may.be.sev

erely

.ae

cted

.by.the.re

ections

.from.the.wal

.(mu

ltipath

.prop

agation),

Industrial Wireless Sensor Networks 6-9

by.interferences.from.other.devices.using.ISM.bands,.and.by.the.noise.generated.from.equipment.or.

heav

.mach

inery

.[28]

.In.thes

.cond

itions,

.it.is.impo

rtant

.that.data.reli

ability

.and.inte

grity

.are.main

tained

.for.ope

ration-critical

.dat

.for.exa

mple,

.ala

.con

ditions.

Specically,

.inte

rference

.signa

.can.be.clas

sied

.in.two.die

rent

.cate

gories,

.broa

dband

.and.nar-

owband

.[28]

.Broa

dband

.inte

rference

.signa

.have.a.cons

tant

.ener

.spec

trum

.over.all.freq

uencies

.and.

high.ener

gy.

. ey.are.usua

lly

.emit

ted

.unin

tentionally

.from.radi

ating

.sour

ces,

.wher

eas

.narr

owband

inte

rference

.signa

.are.inte

ntional

.and.have.less.ener

gy.

.Both.inte

rferences

.have.a.vary

ing

.type.of.deg-

adation

.eec

.on.wire

less

.link.reli

ability.

.In.an.indu

strial

.envi

ronment,

.broa

dband

.inte

rference

.can.

be.caus

.by.motor

.SCR.circ

uits,

.inve

rters,

.comp

uters,

.elec

tric

.swit

.cont

acts,

.volt

age

.regu

lators,

puls

.gene

rators,

.ther

mostats,

.and.weld

ing

.equi

pment.

.On.the.othe

.hand

.narr

owband

.inte

rference

can.be.caus

.by.UPS.syst

ems,

.powe

r-line

.hum,.elec

tronic

.ball

asts,

.test.equi

pment,

.cell

ular

.netw

orks,

radi

o-TV

.tran

smitters,

.signa

.gene

rators,

.and.micr

owave

.equi

pment

.[28]

.In.indu

strial

.envi

ronments,

othe

.type

.of.inte

rference

.sour

ces

.can.be.wide.oper

ating

.temp

eratures,

.stro

.vibr

ations,

.and.airb

orne

cont

aminants.

.In.this.resp

ect,

.it.is.impo

rtant

.to.stud

.and.unde

rstand

.the.radi

.chan

nel

.char

acteristics

to.pre

dict

.the.com

munication

.per

formance

.in.the

.ope

rating

.con

ditions.

Two

.main.clas

ses

.of.mech

anisms

.are.trad

itionally

.empl

oyed

.to.comba

.the.unre

liability

.of.the.wire

less

.chan

nel

.at.the.physi

cal

.and.data.link.laye

.name

.forw

ard

.erro

.corr

ection

.(FEC

)

.and.autom

atic

repe

.requ

est

.(ARQ

.alon

.with.hybr

.sche

mes.

.Comp

ared

.to.FEC.tech

niques,

.ARQ.mech

anisms

use.band

width

.eci

ently

.at.the.cost.of.addi

tional

.late

ncy.

.Henc

.whil

.care

fully

.desig

ned

.sele

ctive

repeat.schemes.may.be.of.some.interest,.naive.use.of.ARQ.techniques.is.clearly.infeasible.for.applica-

tions

.requ

iring

.real

-time

.deli

very

.[2]..In.[50]

.FEC.sche

mes

.are.show

.to.impr

ove

.the.erro

.resil

iency

comp

ared

.to.ARQ..In.a.mult

i-hop

.netw

ork,

.this.impr

ovement

.can.be.expl

oited

.by.redu

cing

.the.tran

smit

powe

.(tra

nsmit

.powe

.cont

rol)

.or.by.cons

tructing

.long

.hops.(hop.leng

.exte

nsion)

.thro

ugh

.chan

nel-

aware

.rout

ing

.proto

cols.

. e.anal

ysis

.reve

als

.that

.for.cert

ain

.FEC.code

.hop.leng

.exte

nsion

.decr

eases

both.the.ener

.cons

umption

.and.the.end-

to-end

.late

ncy

.subje

.to.a.targ

.pack

.erro

.rate.comp

ared

to.ARQ

. us

.FEC.cod

.can.be.pre

ferred

.for.del

ay-sensitive

.tra

c

.in.IWS

.[2]

TABLE 6.2 Comparison.of.Commercial.O-the-Shelf.Radio.Chips.for.IWSNs

Features CC2520 CC2430 AT86RF230 JN5139 MC1321 EM250

Manufacturer TI TI Atmel Jennic Freescale Ember

Frequency

.(GHz) 2.4 2.4

2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4

Bit

.rate.(kbps)

250 250 250 250 250 250

Supply

.vol

tage

.(V) 1.8–3.8

2.0–3.6 1.8–3.6 2.2–3.6 2.0–3.4 2.1–3.6

Sleep

.(μA)

1 0.5

0.02 0.2 1 1

.(mA) 18.5 27 15.5 34 37 29

.minimum.(mA) 16.2.(−18.dBm) — 9.5.(−17.dBm) — 20.9.(−28.dBm) 19.(−32.dBm)

.maximum.(mA) 33.6.(+5.dBm) 27.(0.dBm) 16.5.(+3.dBm) 35.(+3.dBm) 30.(0.dBm) 33.(+5.dBm)

TABLE 6.3 Comparison.of.Commercial.O-the-Shelf.Sensor.Platforms

Features XBee M1030.Mote M2135.Mote MicaZ Mica2

Manufacturer Digi Dust

.netw

orks Dust

.netw

orks Crossbow Crossbow

Radio

.fre

quency 2.4

.GHz 900.MHz 2.4.GHz 2.4.GHz 900.MHz

Ban

dwidth

.(kbps)

250 76.8 250 250 40

Current

.cons

umption −/40/40 −/14/28 −/22/50 8/20/18 08/10/17

Listening/Rx/Tx

.(mA)

Pow

.sleep.(μA)

8 10 27 19

CPU

.type.@(MHz) — — —

.bit.Atm

.@8 8.bit.Atm

.@8

Memo

.(SRAM.[kB]) — — — 4 4

6-10 Industrial Communication Systems

Moreover,.radio.modulation.techniques.can.be.applied.to.reduce.the.interference.and.improve.wireless.

com

munication

.reli

ability

.in.an.ind

ustrial

.fac

ility.

.In.thi

.res

pect,

.to.red

uce

.the.inte

rference

.in.IWS

Ns,

spr

ead

.spe

ctrum

.radi

.mod

ulation

.tech

niques

.can.be.app

licable

.bec

ause

.of.the

.mul

tiple

.acc

ess,

.ant

multipath

.fadi

ng,

.and.ant

ijamming

.capa

bilities.

. e.two.mai

.spr

ead

.spe

ctrum

.tech

niques

.emp

loyed

are.dir

ect

.seq

uence

.spr

ead

.spe

ctrum

.(DS

SS)

.and.fre

quency

.hop

ping

.spr

ead

.spe

ctrum

.(FHS

S).

. es

.hav

di

erent

.phy

sical

.mec

hanisms

.and.thu

.rea

.di

erently

.in.ind

ustrial

.set

tings.

. e.cho

ice

.bet

ween

.radi

tech

niques

.is.depe

ndent

.on.app

lication

.req

uirements

.and.the.ind

ustrial

.env

ironment

.cha

racteristics.

.IWS

Ns,

.int

erference

.to.the.mis

sion-critical

.dat

.can.hav

.cos

tly

.con

sequences

.in.ter

.of.mon

ey,

man

power,

.and.eve

.liv

.of.emp

loyees

.and.pub

lic

.[28

. er

efore,

.the.coe

xistence

.of.WSN.wit

.oth

sys

tems

.ope

rating

.in.the.sam

.ban

.sho

uld

.be.exa

mined.

. e.coe

xistence

.sho

uld

.be.con

sidered

.in.bot

dir

ections,

.“fr

.sys

tem”

.and.“to.sys

tem”

.poi

nts

.of.vie

ws,

.i.e

.how.the.sys

tem

.red

uces

.its.ee

cts

.to.oth

sys

tems

.or.how.it.can.red

uce

.the.ee

cts

.fro

.oth

.sys

tems

.and.int

erference

.sou

rces

.to.its

elf.

.An.exa

ple

.ab

out

.co

existence

.im

pact

.an

alysis

.be

tween

.IE

.80

2.15.4

.an

.80

2.11b

.is.pr

esented

.in.[4

,17,19,36].

6.5.1.3

Ene

rgy-Harvesting

tech

niques

.IWS

Ns,

.the.use.of.bat

teries

.as.pow

.sou

rce

.for.the.sen

sor

.nod

.can.be.tro

ublesome

.due.to.the

lim

ited

.lif

etime,

.mak

ing

.per

iodic

.rep

lacements

.una

voidable

.[5]

.In.thi

.res

pect,

.ene

rgy-harvesting

.(al

ref

erred

.to.as.ene

rgy

.sca

venging)

.tec

hniques,

.whi

.ext

ract

.ene

rgy

.fro

.the.env

ironment

.whe

.the.

sen

sor

.it

self

.re

sides,

.o

.an

other

.im

portant

.wa

.to.pr

olong

.th

.li

fetime

.of.se

nsor

.de

vices.

Systems

.able.to.perpetually.power.sensors.based.on.simple.COTS.photovoltaic.cells.coupled.with.

rec

hargeable

.bat

teries

.and.sup

ercapacitors

.hav

.alr

eady

.bee

.dem

onstrated

.[21

.In.[33

.the.sta

.of.

the.art.in.mor

.unc

onventional

.tec

hniques

.for.ene

rgy

.har

vesting

.is.sur

veyed.

.Tec

hnologies

.to.gen

er-

ate

.ene

rgy

.fro

.bac

kground

.rad

.sign

als,

.the

rmoelectric

.con

version,

.vib

rational

.exc

itation,

.and.the.

hum

.bod

.are.inv

estigated.

.As.far.as.col

lecting

.ene

rgy

.fro

.bac

kground

.rad

.sign

als

.is.con

cerned,

unf

ortunately,

.an.ele

ctric

.el

.of.1.V/m.yie

lds

.onl

.0.2

.W/c

,.as.opposed.to.100.W/cm

.produced.by.

a.cry

stalline

.sili

con

.sol

.cel

.exp

osed

.to.bri

ght

.sun

light

.[2]

.Ele

ctric

.el

.of.int

ensity

.of.a.few.vol

.per.

met

.ar

.on

.en

countered

.cl

ose

.to.st

rong

.tr

ansmitters.

Another

.pr

actice,

.wh

ich

.co

nsists

.in.br

oadcasting

.RF.en

ergy

.de

liberately

.to.po

wer

.el

ectronic

.de

vices,

is.sev

erely

.lim

ited

.by.leg

.lim

its

.set.due.to.hea

lth

.and.saf

ety

.con

cerns.

.Rec

ently,

.it.has.bee

.als

.dem

onstrated

.tha

.wir

eless

.pow

.tra

nsfer

.usin

.res

onant

.mag

netic

.cou

pling

.bet

ween

.two.cop

per

.coi

.is.

pos

sible

.[23

.In.thi

.exp

eriment,

.it.was.sho

.tha

.a.60.W.lig

.bul

.was.lig

hted

.at.an.ec

iency

.of.

40%

.wit

.the.dis

tance

.bet

ween

.the.tra

nsmitter

.and.rec

eiver

.bei

.2.m.. e.ec

iencies

.dem

onstrated

wer

.alm

ost

.a.mil

lion

.tim

.lar

ger

.tha

.non

resonant

.mag

netic

.ind

uction.

.Wire

less

.ene

rgy

.tra

nsfer

.via.

mag

netic

.co

upling

.is.im

portant,

.sin

.bi

ological

.or

ganisms

.on

.we

akly

.in

teract

.wi

.ma

gnetic

.e

lds.

While

.the

rmoelectric

.con

version

.may.not.be.sui

table

.for.wir

eless

.dev

ices,

.har

vesting

.ene

rgy

.fro

.vib

ra-

tions

.in.the.sur

rounding

.env

ironment

.pro

vides

.ano

ther

.use

ful

.sou

rce

.of.ene

rgy.

.Vib

rational

.mag

netic

pow

.gen

erators

.bas

.on.mov

ing

.mag

nets

.or.coi

.cou

.yie

.pow

.tha

.rang

.fro

.ten

.of.mic

rowatts

whe

.bas

.on.mic

ro-electromechanical

.syst

.(ME

MS)

.tec

hnologies

.to.ove

.a.mil

liwatt

.for.lar

ger

.dev

ices.

Oth

.vib

rational

.mic

rogenerators

.are.bas

.on.cha

rged

.cap

acitors

.wit

.mov

ing

.pla

tes

.and

.dep

ending

.on.

the

.exc

itation

.and.pow

.con

ditioning,

.yie

.pow

.in.the.ord

.of.10.μW..In.[33

.it.is.als

.rep

orted

.tha

rec

ent

.ana

lysis

.[31

]

.sug

gested

.tha

.1.cm

.vibrational.microgenerators.can.be.expected.to.yield.up.to.800.W/cm

fro

.mac

hine-induced

.sti

muli,

.whi

.is.ord

ers

.of.mag

nitude

.hig

her

.tha

.wha

.is.pro

vided

.by.cur

rently

ava

ilable

.mic

rogenerators.

.Hen

ce,

.thi

.is.a.pro

mising

.are

.of.rese

arch

.for.sma

.bat

tery-powered

.dev

ices.

Other

.ene

rgy-scavenging

.app

roaches

.emp

loy

.pie

zoelectric

.mat

erials.

.In.[5].and.[33

.it.is.rep

orted

tha

.the

.mat

erials

.can.gen

erate

.pow

.bet

ween

.100.and.330.μW/c

..Please.note.that.while.energy-.

har

vesting

.tec

hniques

.pro

vide

.an.add

itional

.sou

rce

.of.ene

rgy

.and.hel

.pro

long

.the.lif

etime

.of.sen

sor

dev

ices,

.the

.yie

.pow

.tha

.is.sev

eral

.ord

ers

.of.mag

nitude

.low

.as.com

pared

.to.the.pow

.con

sumption

.of.sta

te-of-the-art

.ind

ustrial

.mul

timedia

.dev

ices.

.Hen

ce,

.the

.may.cur

rently

.be.sui

table

onl

.for.ver

y-low

.dut

.cyc

.dev

ices.

.An.ove

rview

.of.di

erent

.ene

rgy-harvesting

.tec

hniques

.is.pre

sented

.in.Tab

.6.4.[5,

2,25,33].

Industrial Wireless Sensor Networks 6-11

6.5.2 Software Development

6.5.2.1 application Programming Interface

.IWSN

.the.appl

ication

.sow

are

.shou

.be.acce

ssible

.thro

ugh

.a.simp

.appl

ication

.prog

ramming

.inte

face

.(API

)

.cust

omized

.for.both.stan

dards-based

.and.cust

omer-specic

.requ

irements.

. is.also.enab

les

.rapi

deve

lopments

.and.netw

ork

.depl

oyments

.[6,42

.With.a.prop

.API,.the.unde

rlying

.netw

ork

.comp

lexity

.can

be.tran

sparent

.to.the.end-

users

.who.are.expe

rts

.in.thei

.spec

ic

.appl

ication

.doma

in,

.but.not.nece

ssarily

expe

rts

.in.netw

orking

.and.wire

less

.comm

unications.

.More

over,

.the.depl

oyed

.sens

.netw

ork

.shou

.be.able.

to.inte

grate

.seam

lessly

.with.the.lega

.eld

bus

.syst

ems

.exis

ting

.in.most.of.the.indu

strial

.faci

lities

.[52]

6.5.2.2

Oper

ating System and Middleware Design

.IWSN

.the.desig

.of.oper

ating

.syst

.is.very.crit

ical

.to.bala

nce

.the.trad

e-o

.betw

een

.ener

.and.

QoS.requ

irements.

.In.this.rega

rd,

.Tiny

.is.one.of.the.earl

iest

.oper

ating

.syst

ems

.dedi

cated

.for.tiny.sen-

.node

.[45]

.It.inco

rporates

.a.comp

onent-based

.arch

itecture,

.whic

.mini

mizes

.the.code.size.and.pro-

ides

.a.exi

ble

.plat

form

.for.impl

ementing

.new.comm

unication

.proto

cols.

.It.ts.in.178.byte

.of.memo

and.sup

ports

.com

munication,

.mul

titasking,

.and.cod

.mod

ularity.

Furthermore,

.in.IWSN

.the.desi

.of.a.prop

.midd

leware

.is.requ

ired

.for.an.eci

ent

.netw

ork

.and.

syst

.mana

gement.

.In.this.rega

rd,

.the.midd

leware

.abst

racts

.the.syst

.as.a.coll

ection

.of.mass

ively

dist

ributed

.obje

cts

.and.enabl

.indu

strial

.senso

.appl

ications

.to.orig

inate

.queri

.and.task

.gath

resp

onses

.and.resu

lts,

.and.moni

tor

.the.chang

.with

.the.netw

ork.

.For.exam

ple,

.the.senso

.info

rmation

netw

orking

.arch

itecture

.prov

ides

.a.midd

leware

.impl

ementation

.of.the.genera

.abst

raction

.and.desc

ribes

senso

.query.and.task

ing

.langu

age

.to.impl

ement

.such.midd

leware

.arch

itecture

.[41]

6.5.2.3

Syst

em Installation and Commissioning

During

.inst

allation

.of.IWSN

.the.syst

.owne

.must.be.able.to.indi

cate

.to.the.syst

.what.a.sens

is.moni

toring

.and.wher

.it.is..Aer.depl

oyment

.in.the.eld

.netw

ork

.mana

gement

.and.comm

issioning

tools.are.esse

ntial.

.For.exam

ple,

.a.grap

hical

.user.disp

lay

.coul

.disp

lay

.netw

ork

.conn

ectivity

.and.help.

the.syst

.owne

.to.set.the.oper

ational

.para

meters

.of.the.sens

.node

.Netw

ork

.mana

gement

.tools.

can.also.prov

ide

.whol

e-network

.perf

ormance

.anal

ysis

.and.othe

.mana

gement

.feat

ures,

.such.as.dete

ct-

ing

.fail

.node

.(e.g

.for.repl

acement),

.assig

ning

.sensi

.task

.moni

toring

.netw

ork

.heal

th,

.upgr

ading

rmw

are,

.and.pro

viding

.QoS.pro

visioning

.[42

6.5.3 System architecture and Protocol Design

6.5.3.1 Network architecture

. IWSNs

. desig

ning

. a. scal

able

. netw

ork

. arch

itecture

. is. of. prim

ary

. impo

rtance.

. One. of. the. desig

appr

oaches

.is.to.depl

.homo

geneous

.sens

ors

.and.prog

ram

.each.sens

.to.perf

orm

.all.possi

ble

.appl

ication

task

.Such.an.appr

oach

.yiel

.a.at,.sing

le-tier

.netw

ork

.of.homo

geneous

.sens

.node

.An.alte

rnative,

TABLE 6.4 Energy-Harvesting.Techniques.in.Wireless.Sensor.Networks

Energy.Source Performance Secondary.Storage Commercially.Available Dimension

Primary

.bat

tery 2880

.J/cm

— Yes —

Secondary

.bat

tery 1080

.J/cm

— Yes —

Light

.(indoo

10–100

.μW/cm

Yes Yes 59–590.cm

Airow 0.4–1.mW/cm

Yes No 6–15.cm

Vibrations

200–380

.μW/cm

Yes Yes 16–30.cm

 ermoelectric

40–60

.μW/cm

Yes Yes 98–148.cm

Electromagnetic.radiation 0.2–1.mW/cm

Yes Yes 6–30.cm

Piezoelectric

100–330

.μW/cm

Yes Yes —

6-12 Industrial Communication Systems

multitier.approach.is.to.utilize.heterogeneous.elements..In.this.approach,.resource-constrained,.low-power.

elem

ents

.are.in.charg

.of.perf

orming

.simp

ler

.task

.such.as.dete

cting

.scal

.phys

ical

.meas

urements,

whil

.reso

urce-rich,

.high-

power

.devi

ces

.(suc

.as.gate

ways)

.perf

orm

.more.comp

lex

.task

.[2]..In.mult

itier

appr

oaches,

.the.syst

.part

itioning/clustering

.is.appl

ied

.to.redu

.powe

.diss

ipation

.in.the.sens

.node

by.spre

ading

.some.of.the.comp

lex

.energ

y-consuming

.comp

utation

.amon

.reso

urce-rich

.node

.that.are.

not.energ

.cons

trained.

.Gene

rally,

.IWSNs.supp

ort

.seve

ral

.hete

rogeneous

.and.inde

pendent

.appl

ications

with.die

rent

.requ

irements.

. ere

fore,

.it.is.nece

ssary

.to.deve

lop

.exi

ble

.and.hier

archical

.arch

itectures

that.can.accom

modate

.the.requ

irements

.of.all.thes

.appl

ications

.in.the.same.infr

astructure

.[2].

. hars

. indu

strial

. cond

itions,

. devi

. fail

ures

. can. occur. becau

. of. ener

. depl

etion

. or. dest

ruc-

tion.

.Ini

ndustrial

.appl

ications,

.it.is.also.poss

ible

.to.have.sensor.netw

orks

.with.high

.mobi

.node

Furt

hermore,

.sensor.node

.and.the.netw

ork

.expe

rience

.varyi

.task.dyna

mics,

.and.they.may.be.a.targ

for.deli

berate

.jamm

ing.

. ere

fore,

.sensor.netw

ork

.topo

logies

.are.pron

.to.freq

uent

.chan

ges

.aer.depl

oy-

ment.

.In.this.resp

ect,

.addi

tional

.sensor.node

.can.be.redep

loyed

.at.any.time.to.repl

ace

.the.malf

unctioning

node

.or.due.to.chan

ges

.in.task.dyna

mics.

.Addi

tion

.of.new.node

.poses.a.need.to.reor

ganize

.the.netw

ork.

Copi

.with.freq

uent

.topo

logy

.chan

ges

.in.an.ad.hoc.netw

ork

.that.has.myri

ads

.of.node

.and.very.stri

ngent

powe

.cons

umption

.cons

traints

.requ

ires

.speci

.comm

unication

.prot

ocols.

6.5.3.2

Data aggre

gation and Fusion

.IWSN

.loca

.proc

essing

.of.raw.data.befo

.dire

ctly

.forw

arding

.redu

ces

.the.amou

.of.comm

unica-

tion

.and.improve.the.communication.eciency.(information.per.bit.transmitted)..Data.aggregation.

and.fusio

.are.typi

cal

.loca

lized

.mech

anisms

.for.the.purp

ose

.of.in-n

etwork

.data.proc

essing

.in.IWSN

 ese.mech

anisms

.mini

mize

.tra

.load.(in.term

.of.numbe

.and/

.leng

.of.pack

ets)

.thro

ugh

.elim

nating

.redu

ndancy.

.Speci

cally,

.when.an.inte

rmediate

.node.rece

ives

.data.from.mult

iple

.sour

.node

inst

ead

.of.forw

arding

.all.of.them.dire

ctly,

.it.chec

.the.cont

ents

.of.inco

ming

.data.and.then.combi

nes

them.by.elim

inating

.redu

ndant

.info

rmation

.unde

.some.accu

racy

.cons

traints.

.In.this.way,.dens

.spat

ial

samp

ling

.of.even

.and.optim

ized

.proc

essing

.and.comm

unication

.thro

ugh

.data.fusio

.can.be.achi

eved.

6.5.3.3

Cros

s-Layer Design

.mult

i-hop

.IWSN

.ther

.is.an.inte

rdependence

.amon

.func

tions

.hand

led

.at.all.laye

.of.the.com-

unication

.proto

col

.stac

.[2,1

2,26,40].

.Func

tionalities

.hand

led

.at.die

rent

.laye

.are.inhe

rently

.cou-

led

.due.to.the.shar

.natu

.of.the.wire

less

.comm

unication

.chan

nel.

. e.physi

cal,

.MAC,.rout

ing,

.and.

tran

sport

.laye

.toget

her

.aec

.the.cont

ention

.for.avai

lable

.netw

ork

.reso

urces.

. e.physi

cal

.laye

.has.a.

dire

.eec

.on.mult

iple

.acce

.of.node

.in.wire

less

.chan

nels

.by.chan

ging

.the.inte

rference

.leve

.at.the.

rece

ivers.

. e.MAC.laye

.dete

rmines

.the.netw

ork

.band

width

.allo

cated

.to.each.node

.whic

.natu

rally

inu

ences

.the.perf

ormance

.of.the.physi

cal

.laye

.in.term

.of.succ

essfully

.dete

cting

.the.desir

.signa

ls.

On.the.othe

.hand

.as.a.resu

.of.tran

smission

.sche

dules,

.high.pack

.dela

.and.low.band

width

.can.

occu

.forc

ing

.the.rout

ing

.laye

.to.modi

.its.rout

.deci

sions.

.Die

rent

.rout

ing

.deci

sions

.chan

.the.set.

of.node

.to.be.sche

duled,

.and.ther

eby

.impa

.the.perf

ormance

.of.the.MAC.laye

.More

over,

.cong

estion

cont

rol

.and.tran

smission

.powe

.cont

rol

.are.also.inhe

rently

.coup

led,

.as.the.capa

city

.avai

lable

.on.each.

link.depe

nds

.on.the.tran

smission

.powe

.[2].. ere

fore,

.tech

nical

.chal

lenges

.caus

.by.hars

.indu

strial

cond

itions

.and.appl

ication-specic

.QoS.requ

irements

.in.IWSN

.call.for.new.rese

arch

.on.cros

s-layer

optim

ization

.and.desig

.meth

odologies

.to.leve

rage

.pote

ntial

.impr

ovements

.in.exch

anging

.info

rmation

betw

een

.die

rent

.laye

.of.the.comm

unication

.stac

.Howe

ver,

.it.is.stil

.impo

rtant

.to.keep.some.form.

of.logi

cal

.sepa

ration

.of.thes

.func

tionalities

.to.pres

erve

.modu

larity,

.and.ease.of.desig

.and.test

ing

.[24]

6.6 Conclusions and Future Work

 e.collaborative.nature.of.IWSNs.brings.several.advantages.over.traditional.wired.industrial.monitor-

ing

.and.cont

rol

.syst

ems,

.incl

uding

.self

-organization,

.rapi

.depl

oyment,

.exi

bility,

.and.inhe

rent

.inte

ligent

.proc

essing

.capa

bility.

.Desp

ite

.the.grea

.prog

ress

.on.deve

lopment

.of.IWSN

.quit

.a.few.issu

.stil

Industrial Wireless Sensor Networks 6-13

need.to.be.explored.in.the.future..For.example,.because.of.the.diverse.industrial.application.require-

ments

.and.lar

.sca

.of.the.net

work,

.sev

eral

.tec

hnical

.pro

blems

.sti

.rem

ain

.to.be.sol

ved

.in.ana

lytical

IWS

.mod

els

.in.ter

.of.com

munication

.lat

ency

.and.rel

iability,

.and.ene

rgy

.ec

iency.

.Oth

.ope

iss

ues

.inc

lude

.opti

mal

.sen

sor

.nod

.dep

loyment,

.loc

alization,

.sec

urity,

.and.int

eroperability

.bet

ween

.dif

ferent

.IWS

.man

ufacturers.

.Fin

ally,

.to.cop

.wit

.RF.int

erference

.and.dyn

amic/varying

.wir

eless

.cha

nel

.con

ditions

.in.ind

ustrial

.env

ironments,

.por

ting

.a.cog

nitive

.rad

.par

adigm

.to.a.low

-power

.ind

ustrial

sen

sor

.nod

.and.dev

eloping

.con

trolling

.mec

hanisms

.for.cha

nnel

.han

d-o

.is.ano

ther

.cha

llenging

.are

yet.to.be.ex

plored.

references

. 1.. N..Aakvaag,.M..Mathiesen,.and.G.. onet,.Timing.and.power.issues.in.wireless.sensor.networks.

an.indu

strial

.test.cas

.in.Pro

ceedings of International Conference on Parallel Processing Workshops,

Oslo

.No

rway,

.Jun

.2005.

. 2.. I.F..Aky

ildiz,

.T..Melo

dia,

.and.K..Cho

wdhury,

.A.surv

.on.wire

less

.mul

timedia

.sens

.netw

orks,

Com

puter Networks Journal,

.51(4),.921–960,.Ma

rch

.2007.

. 3.. I.F..Aky

ildiz,

.W..Su,.Y..Sanka

rasubramaniam,

.and.E..Cay

irci,

.Wire

less

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.netw

orks:

.A.surv

ey,

Com

puter Networks Journal,

.38(4),.393–422,.Ma

rch

.2002.

. 4.. L.. Ang

risani

. et. al.,. Exper

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. stud

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tence

. iss

ues

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een

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802

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eless

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E Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement,

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8),

.151

4–1523,

Augus

.2008.

. 5.. S.R

.Ant

.and.H.A

.Sod

ano,

.A.rev

iew

.of.pow

.har

vesting

.usi

.pie

zoelectric

.mat

erials

.(20

03–2006),

Sma

rt Materials and Structures,

.16(

3),

.1–2

.200

. 6.. L.L..Bel

.et.al.,.Design.and.implem

entation

.of.an.educ

ational

.testb

.for.experien

cing

.wit

.indu

trial

. communic

ation

. netw

orks,

. IEEE Tr

ansactions on Industrial Electronics,

. 54(6),. 3122–3133,.

Decem

ber

.2007.

. 7.. D..Dzung

.C..Apn

eseth,

.J..Enders

en,

.and.J.E..Fre

.Design.and.implem

entation

.of.a.rea

l-time

.wire-

les

. sens

or/actuator

. communic

ation

. system,. in. IEEE Co

nference on Emerging Technologies and

Factory Automation,

.Ca

tania,

.It

aly,

.De

cember

.19–22,.2005.

. 8.. J..Garci

.et.al.,.Reco

ngurable

.dist

ributed

.netw

ork

.cont

rol

.system.for.indu

strial

.pla

.aut

omation,

IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics,.51(6),.1168–1180,.December.2004.

. 9.. V.C

.Gun

gor

.and.G.P

.Han

cke,

.Ind

ustrial

.wir

eless

.sen

sor

.net

works:

.Cha

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7-1

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 Principles and Benets

Ad.hoc.network.is.a.collection.of.mobile.nodes.that.dynamically.organize.themselves.to.form.arbitrary.

and.temp

orary

.netw

orks.

. ese.mobi

.node

.can.get.conn

ected

.with

out

.any.pree

xisting

.infr

astruc-

ture

.or.cent

ralized

.admi

nistration

.wher

.conn

ection

.is.faci

litated

.thro

ugh

.peer

-to-peer

.(P2P

)

.com-

unication

.whic

.may.invo

lve

.mult

ihop

.stru

ctures.

. e.mobi

.node

.are.free.to.move.and.orga

nize

them

selves

.in.arbi

trary

.fash

ion

.whil

.comm

unicating

.with.each.othe

. ere.can.be.mult

iple

.path

empl

oying

.hete

rogeneous

.radi

.betw

een

.any.pair.of.node

.Ad.hoc.netw

orks

.rang

.from.smal

.singl

hop

.pers

onal

.area.netw

orks

.(PAN

.to.larg

e-scale

.mult

ihop

.netw

orks

.invo

lving

.thou

sands

.of.node

Base

.on.the.cove

rage

.area

.the.ad.hoc.netw

orks

.are.clas

sied

.into.four.main.cate

gories:

.body

.pers

onal,

loca

.and.wide

-area

.netw

orks.

. ese.eith

.conn

ect

.to.Inte

rnet

.thro

ugh

.xed.infr

astructure

.or.may.

oper

ate

.as.an.iso

lated

.P2P.net

work

.in.a.sta

nd-alone

.fas

hion

.as.sho

.in.Fig

ure

.7.1

.and.b,.res

pectively.

Although

.the.idea.of.ad.hoc.netw

ork

.was.rst.conc

eived

.in.earl

.1970

.it.did.not.gene

rate

.wide

.inte

rest

earl

ier

.as.the.orig

inal

.appl

ication

.scen

arios

.were.not.dire

cted

.to.mass.user

.Rece

ntly,

.new.conc

epts

.of.

oppo

rtunistic

.ad.hoc.netw

orks

.have.emer

ged

.whic

.have.comm

ercial

.appl

ications

.as.well

.Here

.ad.hoc.

netw

ork

.is.used.oppo

rtunistically

.to.exte

.home.or.camp

.netw

orks

.to.prev

iously

.inac

cessible

.area

 e.deve

lopment

.of.sens

.netw

orks,

.whic

.can.be.trea

ted

.as.spec

ialized

.ad.hoc.netw

orks,

.has.also.

cont

ributed

.to.an.inc

reased

.int

erest

.in.thi

.are

Unlike

.the.cla

ssical

.cel

lular

.net

work

.tha

.req

uires

.pre

located

.cel

.sit

.and.base.sta

tions,

.an.ad.hoc.net

work

.does.not.requ

ire

.any.deta

iled

.infr

astructure

.plan

ning

.as.it.reli

.on.high

.dyna

mic

.netw

ork

.topo

lo-

gies

.to.deal.with.host

ile

.envi

ronment

.and.irre

gular

.conn

ectivity.

.Sinc

.an.ad.hoc.netw

ork

.auto

matically

esta

blishes

.the.comm

unication

.chan

nels

.(lin

ks)

.and.adop

.to.chan

ge,

.the.setup.time.is.shor

.and.cost.is.

low..It.can,.ther

efore,

.be.used.to.comp

lement

.over

loaded

.xed.wire

less

.infr

astructures

.(hot.spot

.and.can.

Ad Hoc Networks

7.1. Introduction........................................................................................7-1

Principles.and.Benets. •. Applications. •. Ad.Hoc.Network.

Characteristic. •. Enabling.Technologies

7.2. Protocol.Stack.....................................................................................7-4

Transport.Layer. •. Network.Layer. •. MAC.Layer. •. Physical.Layer

7.3. Performance.Evaluation................................................................... 7-8

7.4

. Chal

lenges

.and.Iss

ues....................................................................... 7-9

Quality-of-Service. •. Energy.Management. •. Topology.

andConnectivity. •. Security

References......................................................................................................7-11

Sajjad Ahmad

Madani

COMSATS Institute

ofInf

ormation

Tec

hnology

Shahid Khattak

COMSATS Institute

ofInf

ormation

Tec

hnology

Tariq Jadoon

Lahore University

ofMan

agement

Sci

ences

Shahzad Sarwar

University of the Punjab

7-2 Industrial Communication Systems

also.serve.as.an.emergency.backup.in.case.of.massive.xed.infrastructure.failure.due.to.war,.natural,.or.

industrial.disaster..It.can.extend.the.service.area.of.the.access.networks.and.provide.wireless.connectivity.

into.areas.with.limited.or.no.coverage..Although.ad.hoc.architecture.oers.several.benets.such.as.self-

reconguration

.and.adaptability.to.highly.variable.mobile.characteristics,.it.poses.several.new.challenges.

primarily.resulting.from.the.unpredictability.of.the.network.topology.due.to.mobility.and.count.of.nodes..

 e.key.dierences.of.ad.hoc.networks.with.conventional.cellular.systems.are.summarized.in.Table.7.1.

7.1.2 applications

 e.evolution.toward.a.seamless.connectivity.through.a.heterogeneous.network.is.made.possible.due.to.prog-

ress

.in.wireless.communication.standards,.radio.access.technologies,.and.network.architecture..Although.

still.in.its.infancy,.developments.in.these.areas.are.already.resulting.in.several.novel.business.models.

Wireless

.home.networks.are.now.oering.to.move.broadband.data.around.the.house.without.wires.

through.P2P.routing.and.without.requiring.each.device.to.be.in.close.proximity.of.a.centralized.server..

Military.applications.are.another.key.area,.where.P2P.technology.is.implemented.as.“mesh.networks.”.

 ese.networks.enable.instant.and.reliable.communication.among.troops.across.the.battleeld.without.

requiring.predeployed.large.structures,.antennas,.or.traditional.backhaul.connections..Similarly,.this.con-

cept

.is.applicable.to.establish.communication.among.the.public.safety.workers.(of.police,.re-ghting,.and.

rescue.department),.allowing.them.to.establish/extend.networks.by.simply.bringing.mesh-enabled.devices.

to.the.site.of.an.incident..Ad.hoc.networks.can.be.deployed.in.mining.companies.and.other.enterprises,.

which.operate.in.extremely.dicult.environment,.in.order.to.improve.communication.and.safety.of.work-

ers.

.Also,.ad.hoc.technology.can.be.used.to.extend.wireless.connectivity.to.hard-to-reach.areas.such.as.old.

buildings.that.are.dicult.to.wire,.or.to.buildings.that.are.too.distant.to.reach.with.Wi-Fi..Another.inter-

esting

.application.of.the.ad.hoc.networks.is.in.creating.an.intelligent.transportation.system.that.improves.

safety.and.reduces.congestion.on.roads..As.shown.in.Figure.7.2,.each.vehicle.incorporates.smart.devices.

that.monitor.and.communicate.directly.with.each.other.in.order.to.optimize.timing,.warning.of.danger,.

and.conveys.this.information.to.the.trac.control.server.for.strategic.planning..Ad.hoc.technology.enables.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 7.1 Ad.hoc.networks:.(a).xed.infrastructure.network.and.(b).peer-to-peer.network.

TABLE 7.1 Dierences.between.Ad.Hoc.Networks.and.Conventional.

Cellular.Systems

Conventional.Systems Ad.Hoc.Networks

Requires

.infrastructure No.infrastructure.required

Requires

.careful.planning.before.

setting.up.base.stations

Adapts.to.changing.network.conditions

Static

.backbone.network.topology Dynamic.network.topologies

Predictable

.network.conditions Highly.unpredictable.network.conditions

Relatively

.more.secure More.susceptible.to.malicious.attacks