Tsoulfanidis N. Measurement and detection of radiation
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MEASUREMENT AND
DETECTION OF RADIATION
Second Edition
MEASUREMENT AND
DETECTION OF RADIATION
Second Edition
Nicholas Tsoulfanidis
University
of
Missouri-Rolla
Taylor &Francis
P,,hl,,shm
\,ncc
I798
USA
1995
Publishing Office:
Taylor
& Francis
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MEASUREMENT AND DETECTION OF RADIATION, Second Edition
Copyright
0
1995, 1983 Taylor
&
Francis. All rights reserved. Printed in the United
States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976,
no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of
the publisher.
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 BRBR 9 8 7 6 5
This book was set in Times Roman by Technical Typesetting Inc. The editors were
Christine E. Williams and Carol Edwards. Cover design by Michelle M. Fleitz. Printing
and binding by Braun-Brumfield, Inc.
A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.
@
The paper in this publication meets the requirements of the ANSI Standard
239.48-1984
(Permanence of Paper)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Tsoulfanidis, Nicholas
Measurement and detection of radiation/Nicholas
Tsoulfanidis.-
2nd ed.
p. cm.
1. Radiation-Measurement. 2. Nuclear counters. I. Title.
QC795.42.T78
1995
539.7’7-dc20
94-24270
CIP
ISBN l-56032-317-5
To
Zizeta
CONTENTS
Preface to the First Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
INTRODUCTION TO RADIATION MEASUREMENTS
What is Meant by Radiation?
Statistical Nature of Radiation Emission
The Errors and Accuracy and Precision of Measurements
Types of Errors
Nuclear Instrumentation
1.5.1 Introduction
1.5.2 The Detector
1.5.3 The NIM Concept
1.5.4 The High-Voltage Power Supply
1.5.5 The Preamplifier
1.5.6 The Amplifier
1
S.7 The Oscilloscope
1.5.8
The Discriminator or Single-Channel Analyzer (SCA)
1.5.9 The Scaler
1.5.10 The Timer
1.5.1 1 The Multichannel Analyzer
Bibliography
Reference
STATISTICAL ERRORS OF RADIATION COUNTING
Introduction
Definition of
Probabiliw
Basic Probability
heo or ems
2.4
Probability ~istributions and Random Variables
xvii
xxi
vii
viii
CONTENTS
Location Indexes (Mode, Median, Mean)
Dispersion Indexes, Variance, and Standard Deviation
Covariance and Correlation
The Binomial Distribution
The Poisson Distribution
The
Normal (Gaussian) Distribution
2.10.1 The Standard Normal Distribution
2.10.2 Importance of the Gaussian Distribution for
Radiation Measurements
The Lorentzian Distribution
The Standard, Probable, and Other Errors
The Arithmetic Mean and Its Standard Error
Confidence Limits
Propagation of Errors
2.15.1 Calculation of the Average and Its Standard Deviation
2.15.2 Examples of Error
Propagation-Uncorrelated
Variables
Goodness of ~ata-~' Criterion-Rejection of Data
The Statistical Error of Radiation Measurements
The Standard Error of Counting Rates
2.18.1 Combining Counting Rates
Methods of Error Reduction
2.19.1 The Background Is Constant and There Is No Time Limit
for
Its Measurement
2.19.2 There Is a Fixed Time
T
Available for Counting
Both Background and Gross Count
2.19.3 Calculation of the Counting Time Necessary to Measure a
Counting Rate with a Predetermined Statistical Error
2.19.4 Relative Importance of Error Components
Minimum Detectable Activity
Counter Dead-Time Correction and Measurement of Dead Time
Problems
Bibliography
References
REVIEW OF ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Introduction
Elements
of
Relativistic Kinematics
Atoms
Nuclei
Nuclear Binding Energy
Nuclear Energy Levels
Energetics of Nuclear Decays
3.7.1 Gamma Decay
3.7.2 Alpha Decay
3.7.3 Beta Decay
3.7.4 Particles, Antiparticles, and Electron-Positron Annihilation
3.7.5 Complex Decay Schemes
The Radioactive Decay Law
3.9
Nuclear Reactions
3.9.1
General Remarks
3.9.2
Kinematics of Nuclear Reactions
3.10
Fission
Problems
Bibliography
References
4
ENERGY LOSS AND PENETRATION OF RADIATION
THROUGH MATTER
Introduction
Mechanisms of Charged-Particle Energy Loss
4.2.1
Coulomb Interactions
4.2.2
Emission of Electromagnetic Radiation (~remsstrahlung)
Stopping Power Due to Ionization and Excitation
Energy Loss Due to Bremsstrahlung Emission
Calculation of
dE/&
for a Compound or Mixture
Range of Charged Particles
4.6.1
Range of Heavy Charged Particles
(p,
d,
t,
cr;
1
5
A
5
4)
4.6.2
Range of Electrons and Positrons
4.6.3
Transmission of Beta Particles
4.6.4
Energy Loss after Traversing a Material of Thickness
t
<
R
Stopping Power and Range of Heavy Ions
(Z
>
2,
A
>
4)
4.7.1
Introduction
4.7.2
The
dE/&
Calculation
4.7.3
Range of Heavy Ions
Interactions of Photons with Matter
4.8.1
The Photoelectric Effect
4.8.2
Compton Scattering or Compton Effect
4.8.3
Pair Production
4.8.4
Total Photon Attenuation Coefficient
4.8.5
Photon Energy Absorption Coefficient
4.8.6
Buildup Factors
Interactions of Neutrons with Matter
4.9.1
Types of Neutron Interactions
4.9.2
Neutron Reaction Cross Sections
4.9.3
The Neutron Flux
4.9.4
Interaction Rates of Polyenergetic Neutrons
Problems
Bibliography
References
5
GAS-FILLED DETECTORS
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Relationship Between High Voltage and Charge Collected
5.3
Different Types of Gas-Filled Detectors
CONTENTS
ix
107
107
109
113
117
119
119
121
121
122
122
123
124
129
131
132
133
138
142
143
144
144
145
149
150
153
154
157
158
161
162
166
166
166
171
172
173
174
175
177
177
179
180