Tsoulfanidis N. Measurement and detection of radiation
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608
INDEX
Binomial distribution, 35
mean, 36
standard deviation, 37
variance, 37
Biological effects, 562
Biological half life, 559
Bonner sphere, 579
Bragg condition, 421
Bragg-Kleeman rule, 134, 135
Bremsstrahlung, 123, 129, 150
Buildup factors, 162, 164
Berger formula, 165
dose, 164
energy deposition, 164
geometric progression
(GP),
165
number, 164
Taylor formula, 165
CaF,(Eu), 217
Capacitance, 318
Carrier, mobility, 243
CDF, 29
CdTe detector, 419
Cell, 563
Central limit theorem, 45
Cerenkov, detector, 122
Channel electron multiplier (CEM), 454
Charged particles, 121
Chauvenet criterion, 61
X2
criterion, 59, 60
Chromosome, 563
Circuit:
differentiating, 321
integrating, 324
LR, 319
RC, 319
Coincidence, 331
accidental, 335
figure of merit, 336
resolving time, 333
width, 333
Committed dose equivalent, 569
Committed effective dose equivalent, 569
Compensated ion chambers, 510
Compton coefficient, 156
(See
also
Cross section)
Compton, cross section, 156
Compton edge, 387
Compton, effect, 154
Compton scattering, 154
Compton-suppression spectrometer, 388
Conduction band, 212
Conductors, 236, 238
Confidence limits, 52, 53
Corrections of measurements (see Measure-
ment)
Correlation, 33
Correlation coefficient, 34
Coulomb interactions, 122
Counter (see Detector)
Counter, gas-flow,
201
Counter, internal gas, 205
Counting rate, 287
background, 65
combining of, 67
gross, 65
net, 65
true, 74
true net, 75
Covariance 33, 34
Cross section:
average, 173
Compton, 156
macroscopic, 169
microscopic, 167, 169
pair production, 157
photoelectric, 153
Crystal spectrometer, neutron, 503
Crystal spectrometer, X-ray, 421
CsI (Na), 217
CsI
(TO,
217
Cumulative distribution function (CDF), 29
Current chamber, 177
Current-type system, 7
Curve fitting, 354
exponential, 355
linear, 355
power, 355
Cutie pie, 573
DAC, 569
Data smoothing, 373
Dead time, 73
MCA, 346
measurement, 75
Decay:
alpha, 96
beta, 98
P',
100
P-,
98
constant, 103
gamma, 94
law, 104
nuclear, 92
statistical nature of, 5
Deep dose equivalent, 569
INDEX
609
Delay line, 325, 334
Delayed gammas, 115
Delta function, 364
Grays, 123
Derived air concentration (DAC), 569
Detector, 7
BF,, 469
boron-lined, 473
CdTe, 259, 419
compensated ion chamber, 510
dead time of, 8
diffused junction, 252
E(dE/du), 455
energy resolution, 8
fission chamber, 477
gas-filled,
177
geometry, 207
pressure, 208
window, 208
gas-flow, 201
Ge, 258
Ge(Li), 258
GM, 199
3~e, 475
HgI,, 259, 419
ionization, 181, 183
6~i, 474
MWPC,
461
phoswich, 232
position-sensitive, 459
proportional 189
scintillation (see Scintillators)
semiconductor, 235
Si(Li), 254
SPND, 511, 512, 517
surface barrier, 252
Detector efficiency, 8, 283, 285
absolute total, 390
BF,, 471
double escape peak, 390, 391
effect of density, 284
effect of particle energy, 284
Freeman-Jenkin equation, 409
full-energy peak, 390
intrinsic total, 390
McNelles-Campbell equation, 410
Mowatt equation, 409
NaI(Tl), 392, 394
relative, 391
single-escape peak, 391
Detector pulse height,
8
Detector response, 364
Differentiating circuit, 321
Discharge, electric, 180
Discriminator, 17, 18
Dispersion indexes, 33
Distributions, 28
binomial, 35
Fermi, 237
Gaussian, 39
Lorentzian, 46
mean of, 31
median of, 31
mode of, 30
Poisson, 37
standard normal, 43
DNA, 563
Dose:
absorbed, 543
equivalent
(H),
546
from charged particles, 547, 555
from neutrons, 552
from photons, 549
geometry factor, 557
Dosimeter:
activated foils, 582
Bonner sphere, 579
bubble detector, 580
EPD,
581
SSTR, 576
TLD, 572,575
Doubling dose, 567
Drift velocity:
electrons, 184
ions. 184
E(dE/dx) detectors, 455
Effective:
atomic number, 131, 139
charge, 147
dose equivalent, 568
half-life, 559
molecular weight, 134
Efficiency
(see
Detector efficiency)
Electron:
backscattering, 439
capture (EC), 101
electron-hole pair, 240
electron-ion pair, 177
average energy for production, 189
range, 138
Electronic noise, 303
Electronic personal dosimeter (EPD), 581
Electrostatic spectrometer, 458
Energy, binding, 87
(See
also Binding energy)
Energy calibration, Schmitt method, 450
610
INDEX
Energy levels:
atomic, 84,
nuclear, 91
Energy loss, mechanisms, 122
Energy loss, 124
(See also Stopping power)
Energy resolution, 300, 305
crystal spectrometer, 421, 504
electron detectors, 441
Ge detector, 411
Energy spectrum, 293
area under the peak, 415
differential, 293, 296
integral, 294, 295
measured, 299
source, 299
Energy states (see Energy levels)
Energy straggling, 433, 434, 437
EPD, 581
Error:
definition, 3
determinate, 5
probable, 49
propagation, 55, 56
radiation measurements, 62
random, 5,6
reduction, 68
relative importance, 70
standard, 49, 56
standard, of single measurement, 51
statistical, 5, 6
systematic, 5
type I, 71
type
11, 71
types, 5
Error function, 42, 44
Event, 23, 25
Excitation, 85, 123
Exciton, 213
Expectation value (see Average)
Exposure, 543
Fano factor, 301, 411
Flux-to-dose rate conversion factor:
betas and electrons, 548
neutrons, 553
photons, 550, 556
Fermi distribution, 237
FET, 341
Field-effect-transistor (see FET)
Fission, 113
betas, 115
chamber, 477
foil preparation, 452
fragments, 115
neutrinos, 116
neutrons, 116
yield, 116
Fluorescent radiation, 102
Folding, 363, 365
Frequency function, 29
Full width at half maximum
(FWHM), 42, 300
Gamma:
absorption coefficient, 161
attenuation (see Attenuation coefficients)
backscatter peak, 387
buildup factors, 162, 164
double escape peak, 387
energy deposition, 382, 385
full energy peak, 387
gammas, total, 158
Ge detector, 400
interactions, 150
mean free path, 160
NE, 213, 398
single escape peak, 387
Gamma detection with:
Ge detector, 400
NaI(T1) scintillator, 392
NE-213 scintillator, 398
Gaussian distribution (see Normal distribution)
Ge:
properties, 249
resistivity, 247
Ge detector, 258, 400
efficiency, 401, 405, 406, 407, 408
energy resolution, 411
energy spectra, 413
escape peaks, 415
Geiger-Muller
(GM) counter, 181
external quenching, 199
plateau, 195
pulse, 200
quenching, 199
self-quenching, 199
Geiger-Muller
(GM) region, 180
Ge(Li) detector, 258
Gene, 563
Genetic effects, 566
doubling dose, 567
Geometry factor (see Solid angle)
Goodness of data, 58
Gray (Gy), 543
INDEX
611
Half-life:
biological, 559
effective, 559
of nucleus, 105
partial, 106
Health physics, 541
Health physics instruments, 573
Heavy ion, calibration sources, 452
HgI, detector,
259,
419
High pass filter, 323
High-voltage:
plateau, 195
slope, 197
Hole, 240
HVPS.
9
IC electron spectrum, 443
Impedance, 321
Indexes:
dispersion, 33
location, 30
Inductance, 318
Insulators, 236, 238
Integrating chamber, 177
Integrating circuit, 324
Internal conversion (IC), 94, 96
Interpolation, 355
Lagrange formula, 356
error, 356
Ion beams, pulsed, 509
Ionization,
85,
123
chamber, 181, 183
potential, 85, 86
potential, mean, 126
primary, 178
region, 179
secondary, 178
Ionization chamber:
current, 187
pulse, 183
Isobar, 86
Isomer, 87
Isotone, 87
Isotope, 87
Kurie plot, 443
Lagrange formula, 356
Least-squares fit, 359
general functions, 361
linear, 359
nonlinear, 359
straight line, 360
Light pipe, 228
LiI(Eu), 217
Low pass filter, 325
LR circuit, 320
LRAD, 204
Macroscopic cross section, 169
((See
also
Cross section)
Magnetic rigidity, 456
Magnetic spectrometer, 456
Mean, 31
(See
also
Average)
Mean free path:
gamma, 160
neutron, 170
Measurement:
absolute, 265
accuracy of, 3
anticoincidence, 331
coincidence, 331
detector effects, 282
efficiency, 283
window, 282
error
of,
3
geometry effects,
267
outcome, 25
precision
of,
3
relative, 265
solid angle, 268
source effects, 277
backscattering factor, 279
self-absorption, 277
Median, 31
Microscopic cross section, 167, 169
(See
also
Cross section)
Minimum detectable activity (MDA), 71, 73
Mobility of carriers, 243
Multichannel analyzer (MCA), 21, 307
calibration, 310
dead time, 346
multichannel scaling (MCS), 307
pulse-height analysis, 307
Multiparameter analyzer, 347
Multiplication factor, gas, 179
Multiwire proportional counter (MWPC), 461
NaI(TI), 216
NE-213,398
Neutrino, 100
612
INDEX
Neutron, 89
absorption, 166
Bonner sphere, 579
bubble detector, 580
chopper, 508
cross section, average, 173
cross sections, 167
crystal spectrometer, 503
detection by exothermic reactions, 468
detection by organic scintillator, 494
detection by proton recoil, 467
detection by threshold reactions, 496
foil activation, 478, 482, 582
interactions, 166, 525
reaction rate, 171, 172
scattering, 166
sources, 528, 529
time-of-flight method, 505
Neutron detection with:
BF, counter, 469
boron-lined counter, 473
Bonner ball, 475, 579
crystal spectrometer, 503
3~e counter, 475
6~i~, 474
(n,
a)
reaction, 469
(n,
Y)
reaction, 478
(n, p) reaction, 484, 489
proportional counter, 489
proton recoil, 484
scintillators, 474, 494
self-powered neutron detectors, 511, 512, 517
SSTR, 576
threshold reactions, 496
time-of-flight, 505
TLD, 576
Nuclear instrument module (NIM), 9
Noise, electronic,
8,
303
Nonstochastic effects, 564
Normal distribution, 39
CDF, 41
mean, 41
standard, 43
standard deviation, 41
variance, 41
Nuclear:
decay, 92
(See
also
Decay)
mass, 87
radius, 87
reactions, 107
kinematics, 109
threshold, 113
Nuclei, 86
Nucleic acids, 563
Nucleus, compound, 108
Oscilloscope, 16
Pair:
electron-hole, 240
production, 157, 386
Pair production coefficient, 157
(See
also
Cross section)
PDF, 29
Peak-to-Compton ratio, 404
Peak-to-total ratio, 390
Phoswich detector, 232
Photoelectric effect, 153
Photoelectric:
coefficient, 153
(See
also
Cross section)
cross section, 153
Photomultiplier tube, 211, 224
dark current, 226
electron multiplication, 227
p-metal, 227
photocathode, 225
Photon, interactions, 150
Phototube, 211
(See
also
Photomultiplier tube)
p-n
junction, 246, 250
capacitance, 251
reverse bias, 249
Poisson distribution, 37
mean, 39
standard deviation, 39
variance, 39
Positron, 100
Preamplifier, 11, 339
Precision, 3, 5
Primary ionization, 178
Probability:
addition law, 26
definition, 23
density function
(PDF), 29
distributions, 28
multiplication law, 26
theorems, 25
Prompt gammas, 115
Proportional counter, 181
for neutron detection, 489
for X-ray detection, 399
gas multiplication, 189, 192
multiwire (MWPC), 461
pulse, 194
Proportional region, 180
INDEX
613
Proton recoil method, 467, 484
Pulse height defect, 433, 447
Pulse shape discrimination, 337
Pulse shaping, 326, 327
Pulse timing, 328, 418
constant fraction, 331
jitter, 329
leading edge, 329
walk, 329
zero-crossing, 330
Pulse-type system, 7, 8
Quality factor (Q), 545
Rad, 543
Radiation, 1
biological effects of, 562
nonstochastic, 564
stochastic, 564, 566
cancer incidence, 566
exposure limits, 569
fluorescent, 102
ionizing,
1
nonionizing, 1
protection guides, 567
statistical nature of, 2
Radiation area, 582
Random variable, 34
continuous, 28, 29
discrete, 28, 29
Range, 132
alpha, 134
a,
p,
d,
t,
133
electrons, 138
extrapolated, 134
heavy ions, 149
mean, 134
protons, 137
straggling, 438
Rate meter, 206
RC circuit, 319
Reaction rate, 171, 172
Reactions, 107
(See
also
Nuclear reactions)
Recombination region, 179
Rejection of data, 61
Relative biological effectiveness (RBE), 545
Relativistic kinematics, 80
kinetic energy, 81
momentum, 81
Relativity postulates, 80
Rem, 546
Rem ball, 579
Resistance, 318
Resolving power, crystal spectrometer, 504
Response function, 304
alpha detector, 446
Ge detector, 413
NaI(TI), 396
Restricted area, 582
RNA,
563
Roentgen
(R),
543
Saturation activity, 480, 531
Scaler, 20
Scattered beam, 163
Scintillation counter:
background, 231
dead time, 230
organic for neutron detection, 494
Scintillation process, 218
Scintillators, 21 1
Anthracene, 220
CaF,(Eu),
217
crystal, 212, 215
CsI(Na), 217
CsI(TI), 217
gaseous, 222
inorganic, response, 222
LiI(Eu), 217
NaI(TI), 216
organic, 218, 219, 220
organic liquid, 220
response, 223
photon emission rate, 215
plastic, 221
trans-stilbene, 220
Secondary ionization, 178
Self-powered neutron detectors
(SPND), 511,
512, 517
Semiconductor detectors, 235
radiation damage, 260
Semiconductors, 236, 239
acceptor states, 245
conductivity, 243
donor states, 245
doping, 245
energy gap, 241
extrinsic, 245
intrinsic, 245
n-type, 245
p-n junction, 246
p-type, 245
Si:
properties, 249
resistivity, 248
Sievert
(Sv), 546
614
INDEX
Signal-to-noise ratio, 327
Si(Li) detector, 254
FWHM,
420
X-ray, 420
Single-channel analyzer (SCA), 17, 20
Smoothing of data, 373
Solid angle, 268, 269, 273, 274, 276
Solid-state track recorders
(SSTR), 576
Source backscattering factor, 279, 280, 281
Spectrometer:
calibration, 422
Compton suppression, 388
crystal, neutron, 503
crystal, X-ray, 421
electrostatic, 458
magnetic, 456
Spectrum (see Energy spectrum)
Standard error, 48
of average, 63
of counting rates, 64
Standard normal distribution, 43
Stochastic effects, 564
Stopping power, 124
a,
p,
d,
t,
125
compounds, 131
density effect, 127
electrons, 125
heavy ions, 144
positrons,
125
Surface barrier detector, 252
TAC, 336
Thermoluminescent dosimeters (see
TLD)
Threshold reactions, 496, 499
Time-of-flight, 505
figure of merit, 507
spectrometer, 453
Time-to-amplitude converter (see TAC)
Timer, 21
TLD, 572,575
Total effective dose equivalent
(TEDE), 569-570
Unfolding, 305, 364, 368, 371, 372
FERDOR method, 488
LSL-M2 method, 503
proton recoil spectra, 487
RDMM method, 502
SAND-I1 method, 501
SPECTRA method, 502
Unscattered beam, 162
Valence band, 212
Variance, 33
Weighting factors
(w,),
568
Working level (WL), 570
Working level month (WLM), 570
X-ray crystal spectrometer, 421
Bragg condition 421
energy resolution, 428, 429
fluorescent, 427
Johanson type, 427
rocking curve, 425,426
X-ray detection with:
c~ystal spectrometer, 421
proportional counter, 399
scintillators, 392
Si(Li) detector, 420
X-rays, 1, 150
X-rays, energy, 84