Sioshansi F.P. Smart Grid: Integrating Renewable, Distributed & Efficient Energy
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[32] Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, National Action
Plan on Demand Response, June 2010, Staff Report.
[33] EEnergy Informer, May 2011, p. 8.
[34] “Obama Makes Good on Executive Order to Reduce the
Federal Government GHGs,” The Green Market,
February 3, 2010.
[35] One example is the action that New Mexico, California,
and other western states are taking to create the Western
Climate Initiative, a regional cap-and-trade organization.
http://www.westernclimateinitiative.org/.
[36] DOE – The Department of Energy. 2009 Renewable
Energy Book.
[37] Germany, Spain, and Denmark are already well past
15%. In 2009, the Spanish national grid set a variety of
records, eventually topping 50 percent of its
instantaneous total power demand from wind power.
[38] D. Lew, et al., How Do Wind and Solar Power Affect
Grid Operations: The Western Wind and Solar
Integration Study. NREL, May 2010; D. Corbus et al.,
Eastern Wind Integration and Transmission Study –
Preliminary Findings (NREL, September 2009).
[39] Navigant Consulting, The Convergence of the Smart
Grid with Photovoltaics: Identifying Value and
Opportunities (December 2008).
[40] R. Baxter, J. Makansi, Energy Storage: The Sixth
Dimension of the Electricity Value Chain (Pearl Street
Executive Briefing Report, January 22, 2002).
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http://www.energystoragecouncil.org/
1%20-%20Jason%20Makansi-ESC.pdf.
[41] “How Electric Cars Could Become a Giant Battery for
Renewable Energy,” Mother Jones, October 15, 2010.
[42] Sioshansi, R.; Denholm, P.; Jenkins, T., Comparative
analysis of the value of pure and hybrid electricity
storage, Energy Economics 33 (1) (2011) 56–66.
[43] Electrification Coalition, Electrification Roadmap:
Revolutionizing Transportation and Achieving Energy
Security (November 2009).
[44] As a result, niche markets are developing for devices that
improve the power quality and reliability for home
computers and TVs with the promise of extending their
life.
[45] Chris Marney, Microgrids and Heterogeneous Power
Quality and Reliability (Lawrence Berkeley National
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[46] A Strong Smart Grid: The Engine of Energy Innovation
and Revolution, State Grid of China, 2009.
[47] World Economic Forum, Accelerating Successful Smart
Grid Pilots, 2010.
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Chapter 2. From Smart Grid to Smart
Energy Use
Stephen Healy and Iain MacGill
Chapter Outline
Introduction 29
Disempowering Users—The Emergence of Supplier
Sovereignty 31
A Case Study: The Emergence of “Thermal Monotony”
35
The Lessons of History 41
Pressures for Change: Rising Demand, Energy
Security, and Climate Change 41
Growing Demand 42
Energy Security 43
Climate Change 44
Putting End-Users Back at the Heart of Energy
Decision-Making: Emergent Smart Grid and
Distributed Energy Options 46
New Distributed Options 46
End-User Engagement 47
Market and Regulatory Innovations for Smart Energy
Use 50
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Current Retail Markets 51
Frameworks for Engagement 53
Conclusions 56
References 58
This chapter argues that smart energy use involves moving beyond monitoring, communications, smart
meters, and pricing to more fundamentally empowering end-user decision-making While large-scale
integrated grids and centralized generation have effectively delivered affordable energy services, they
have also given supply-side concerns a significant role in determining the character and content of
those end-use services Growing demand, energy security, and climate change underscore a
requirement to revisit smart energy use by putting end-users back at the heart of energy
decision-making This chapter explores what this might involve using illustrative developments to
explore the organizational and administrative structures and processes that could facilitate such a
transition
Energy consumption, evolution of demand, consumer behavior, Energy Governance, Distributed
Energy
Introduction
This chapter first outlines in the following section the
evolution of the electricity industry to show how the current
emphasis on some specific smart grid applications and
technologies, such as smart meters and dynamic pricing,
represents only a modest change in the underlying historical
trajectory of the industry. In particular, we suggest that such
an emphasis does not adequately address the way
contemporary consumer choice has come to be predominantly
conditioned by the low-cost and seemingly boundless
electricity availability many take for granted today. We also
argue that this situation is reflected in current
supply-side-oriented industry structures and arrangements,
quite unlike the early days of the industry when institutional
structures and arrangements commonly emerged as shared
enterprises between end-users and generating plant
developers. While electric lighting and some industrial
applications were enthusiastically embraced when distributed
electricity first emerged in the late nineteenth and early
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twentieth centuries, economies of supply soon had system
engineers looking to stimulate new loads. Many new “energy
services” were devised as a result, centering not only on new
appliances and “white goods” but also upon previously
unheralded “energy services” such as the domestic provision
of chilled, dehumidified air. While most of these energy
services are now taken for granted and assumed routine and
necessary, this section will show that their mass uptake was
the not the result of straightforward consumer choice but
rather involved intensive marketing and a number of further
institutional and political initiatives targeting intensive, mass
electrification.
Indeed, the evolution of the electricity industry over the last
century has largely centered upon extending the grid and
scaling up centralized generation. Reasons for this included
remotely located yet highly concentrated energy sources
(particularly hydro and coal), economies of scale in
generating plant, and the aggregation of diverse and highly
distributed forms of supply and demand. In many regards this
has been highly successful. One of its greatest successes has
been to allow end-users to disengage from the electricity
industry other than through paying their bills. Almost the
entire population of the developed world now has access to a
relatively low-cost and highly reliable electricity grid that
appears to effortlessly supply just about any amount of
electricity end-users choose to consume. For the most part
there are no rules controlling the way small end-users install
new loads, such as air conditioners, with the industry
typically focused upon meeting projected future demand
through the augmentation of supply financed by charging
end-users on a cost-recovery basis. As a result electricity has
become, rather than the “scarce resource” of economics
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textbooks, a cheap source of just about any energy service
that end-users conjure up or have suggested to them.
Currently, however, there are growing pressures for change.
One source for these was the wave of electricity industry
restructuring across many countries in the 1990s centering
upon the introduction of competition into electricity markets.
The explicit principles behind the introduction of competitive
electricity markets, and the associated corporatization, or
privatization, of previously government-owned or regulated
private monopoly industry participants, included improved
efficiency and innovation, as well as improved customer
choice. Outcomes to date have been mixed, and meanwhile,
other, arguably more pressing, drivers for change have
emerged. These include seemingly endless demand growth,
growing energy security concerns (particularly with respect to
the ongoing supply of fossil-fuel primary energy resources),
and climate change. These are discussed in the section
“Pressures for Change: Rising Demand, Energy Security, and
Climate Change” of this chapter.
There is a promising range of existing and emerging
technologies capable of helping address these challenges,
with some that fit well within current centralized supply style
arrangements. Many of the most promising options, however,
center upon distributed energy options, including energy
efficiency and demand management arrangements. These
latter can help reduce demand growth, thereby improving
energy security and reducing emissions. However, utilizing
their full potential will almost certainly require a very
different relationship between end-users and the electricity
industry from that established historically. Here lies the
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promise and challenge of smart grids that hold the potential to
facilitate such engagement.
However, the predominant current emphasis on means such
as smart meters and dynamic pricing tends to conflate
consumer choice and engagement with the collective response
of aggregate demand to real-time prices. This chapter argues
that this reflects the historical supply-side emphasis of the
industry and substantively underplays the potential for further
constructive end-user engagement. The chapter labels such
more substantively empowered users “smart users” and
explores how we might move further in this direction. The
emergence of more localized smart grids and distributed
energy options, often owned and operated by consumers,
effects a return to the situation operating before the
consolidation of large-scale integrated grid supply. In these
emergent circumstances users are able to not only provision
the suite of energy services they have inherited as efficiently
and cheaply as possible but also to reflect upon the
sustainability of these services and whether or not they might
better be either substituted or, more simply, ceased altogether.
This can, and does, result in the prioritization of more
sustainable alternatives such as, for example, passive cooling
rather than energy-intensive air conditioning. These matters
make up the content of the section “Putting End-Users Back
at the Heart of Energy Decision-Making: Emergent Smart
Grid and Distributed Energy Options” of this chapter.
While emergent smart energy use commonly involves smart
energy users reframing energy services and using a different
set of energy technologies, this can only be effective in a
market and regulatory environment favorable to the effective
exercise of consumer sovereignty. This is a significant
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challenge because the emergence of large-scale integrated
grids and centralized generation witnessed the
disempowerment of consumers as supply-side imperatives
came to frame and shape demand-side choice in numerous
ways. The chapter concludes, in the section “Market and
Regulatory Innovations for Smart Energy Use,” with a
discussion of market and regulatory innovations favorable to
the facilitation of smart energy use and develops a number of
recommendations for their further development and
institutionalization.
Disempowering Users—The Emergence of
Supplier Sovereignty
Many have long argued that energy policy should focus on
demand-side services such as heat, entertainment, light,
mobility, and so on, delivered by fuels and electricity, rather
than the supply-side criteria, such as the electricity-generating
capacity within a particular jurisdiction, which currently
dominate much energy policy thinking (e.g., [1]). While such
a change in focus has the potential to facilitate improved
efficiencies in the delivery of energy services, and help ensure
that these better reflect demand, this position assumes
that—given a blank slate—consumers would, essentially,
choose a set of energy services analogous to those that
dominate today. This section demonstrates that the historical
emergence of the suite of contemporary demand-side services
predominant today was as much about the choices of system
designers and engineers as it was about unconstrained
consumer choice.
The 1888 historical extract in Figure 2.1, compares the use of
conventional AC generation and distribution to meet
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electrical lighting loads against the potential application of
DC generation and distribution with local battery
(accumulator) energy storage to better utilize generation and
network assets. The extraordinary peaky character of
expected electrical loads at that time (almost exclusively
lighting) is highlighted in the graph showing the estimated
load profile of lighting for London. The author suggests that
peak lighting loads might best be met through a mix of
centralized DC generation and local battery-sourced supply.
Figure 2.1
An early “smart grid” proposal published in 1888. Crompton, R. Central station
lighting: Transformers v Accumulators, Journal of the Society of
Telegraph-Engineers and Electricians, 1888, 17, 349–371.
The interchangeability of electrical and mechanical energy
was first demonstrated in Michael Faraday's 1831 discovery
of electrical induction [2, p. 169]. Many built upon this
discovery over the course of the following century with the
contributions of some, notably Thomas Edison, particularly
prominent. While Edison was instrumental in the
development of specific technologies such as light bulbs and
large generators, it was his vision, organizational acumen, and
broader business skills that made him stand out. Edison's
company, for example, was responsible for the first
electricity-generating plant at Holborn Viaduct in London in
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