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Product Automation 32.10 Embedded Systems 555

•

Real-time, deterministic response

•

Power consumption

•

Lifetime

Automated products as well as automation and power

systems must have very high availability and be ex-

tremely reliable. Economic security and personal safety

depend on high-integrity systems. Embedded systems

play a critical role in such mission-critical conﬁgura-

tions.

Real time is a term often associated with embed-

ded systems. Because these systems are used to control

or monitor real-time processes, they must be able to

perform certain tasks reliably within a given time. The

response time associated with this real time varies with

the applicationand canrange from seconds to microsec-

onds. Embedded systems must operate with as little

power consumption as possible. For this reason various

power-harvesting technologies are often included in the

design.

Yet another requirement that is frequently imposed

on industrial embedded systems is a long lifetime of the

product itself and the lifecycle of the product family.

While modern consumer electronics may be expected

to last for less than 5 years, most industrial devices

are expected to work in the ﬁeld for 20 years or more.

This imposes challenges not only on the robustness of

the electronics, but also on how the product should

be handled throughout its lifecycle: Hardware compo-

nents, operating systems, and development tools are

constantly evolving and individual products eventually

become obsolete.

Asset

condition

document

°C kPa Ω l/min ppb % °C kPa Ω l/min ppb %°C kPa Ω l/min ppb %

Asset

manager

Automation

system

PC tool

CMMS

Messenger

Drives,

switchgear

etc.

Fig. 32.12 Automated products like

instruments as part of a control

network (after [32.23])

The key issues in developing embedded systems

are complexity, connectivity, and usability. While the

steadily increasing transistor density and speeds of in-

tegrated circuits offer tremendous opportunities, these

improvements also present huge challenges to handle

the complexity: a modern embedded system can consist

of hundreds of thousands of lines of software code.

Before the widespread deployment of digital com-

munication, most embedded systems operated in

a stand-alone mode (Fig.32.12). They may have had

some capabilities for remote supervision and control,

but, by and large, most functions were performed

autonomously. This is changing rapidly. Embedded sys-

tems are now often part of sophisticated distributed

networks. Simple sensors with basic transmitter elec-

tronics have been replaced by complex, intelligent ﬁeld

devices. As a consequence, individual products can no

longer be automated in isolation; they must have com-

mon components. Communication has gone from being

a small part of a system to being a signiﬁcant function.

Where serial peer-to-peer communication was once the

only way to connect a device to a control system,

ﬁeldbuses are now able to integrate large numbers of

complex devices. The need to connect different appli-

cations within a system to information and services in

ﬁeld devices drives the introduction of standard infor-

mation and communication technologies (ICT)suchas

Ethernet and web services.

Complex ﬁeld devices are often programmable or

conﬁgurable. Today’s pressure transmitters can contain

several hundred parameters. The interaction with a de-

vice – either from a built-in panel or from a software

Part D 32.10

556 Part D Automation Design: Theory and Methods for Integration

application in the system – has become more complex.

The task ofhiding this complexityfrom theuser through

the creation of a user-friendly device has sometimes

been underestimated. Most other requirements are eas-

ily quantiﬁable or absolute, but usability is somewhat

harder to deﬁne.

The emergence of system-on-chip (SoC) technology

has enabled extremely powerful systems to run on con-

ﬁgurable platforms that contain all the building blocks

of an embedded system: microprocessors, digital signal

processors (DSP), programmable hardware logic, mem-

ory, communication processors, and display drivers, to

give but a few examples. A further important aspect of

the evolution of embedded systems is the trend towards

networking of embedded nodes using specialized net-

work technologies, frequently referred to as networked

embedded systems (NES).

SoC can be deﬁned as a complex integrated cir-

cuit, or integrated chipset, that combines the main

functional elements or subsystems of a complete end

product in a single entity (Fig. 32.13). Nowadays, the

External memory access

RAM FlashFlash RAM

DCache

System

bus

ICacheICache

PLL

Test

PCl

USB

Disk controller

Audio CODEC

Video I/F

MPEG decode

DCache

Peripheral bus

Microprocessor DSP

DMA

Bus bridge100 base-T

Fig. 32.13 Typical SoC system for

consumer applications (after [32.24]).

USB – universal serial bus, PLL –

phase locked loop, PCI – peripheri-

cal component interconnect, DMA –

direct memory access, I/F – interface

most challenging SoC designs include at least one pro-

grammable processor, and very often a combination

of at least one RISC (reduced instruction set comput-

ing) control processor and one DSP. They also include

on-chip communications structures – processor bus(es),

peripheral bus(es), and sometimes a high-speed sys-

tem bus. A hierarchy of on-chip memory units, as well

as links to off-chip memory, is especially important

for SoC processors. For most signal-processing appli-

cations, some degree of hardware-based accelerating

functional unit is provided, offering higher perfor-

mance and lower energy consumption. For interfacing

to the external world, SoC design includes a number

of peripheral processing blocks consisting of analogue

components as well as digital interfaces (for example,

to system buses at board or backplane level). Future

SoC may incorporate MEMS-based (microelectrome-

chanical system) sensors and actuators or chemical

processing (lab-on-a-chip).

Recently, the scope of SoC has broadened. From

implementations using custom integrated circuits (ICs),

Part D 32.10

Product Automation 32.11 Summary and Emerging Trends 557

Fig. 32.14 Fully ﬂedged board for the automation of

a substation in an electric grid: (a) EPROM, (b) signal

preprocessing FPGA, (c) device internal 100bit/sserial

communication, (d) power supply, (e) multiport Ethernet

switch with optical and electrical 100Mbit/s Ethernet me-

dia access, (f) 18–300V binary inputs, (g) binary input

processing ASIC,(h)RAM, (i) PowerPC microcontroller

(after [32.25])

application-speciﬁc IC (ASIC) or application-speciﬁc

standard part (ASSP), the approach now includes

the design and use of complex reconﬁgurable logic

parts with embedded processors. In addition other

application-oriented blocks of intellectual property,

such as processors, memories or special-purpose func-

tions from third parties are incorporated into unique

designs.

These complex ﬁeld-programmable gate arrays

(FPGAs) are offered by several vendors. The guiding

principle behind this approach to SoC is to combine

large amounts of reconﬁgurable logic with embedded

RISC processors, in order to enable highly ﬂexible

and tailorable combinations of hardware and software

processing to be applied to a design problem. Algo-

rithms that contain signiﬁcant amounts of control logic,

plus large quantities of dataﬂow processing, can be

partitioned into the control RISC processor with recon-

ﬁgurable logic for hardware acceleration.

Another important facet of the evolution of embed-

ded systems is the emergence of distributed embed-

ded systems, frequently termed networked embedded

systems, where the word networked signiﬁes the

importance of the networking infrastructure and com-

munication protocol. A networked embedded system

is a collection of spatially and functionally distributed

embedded nodes, interconnected by means of wired

and/or wireless communication infrastructure and pro-

tocols, and interacting with the environment (via

sensor/actuator elements) and with each other. Within

the system, a master node can also be included to co-

ordinate computing and communication, in order to

achieve speciﬁc objectives.

Early implementation of numerical power sys-

tem protection and control devices used specialized

digital signal processing (DSP) units. Today’s imple-

mentations are leveraging the vast computing power

available in general-purpose central processing units

(CPU). As such, PowerPC microcontrollers deliver

high computing power at low power consumption

and, therefore, low power dissipation. Random-access

memory (RAM) is utilized for the program execu-

tion memory and erasable read-only memory (EPROM)

stores program and conﬁguration information. A typ-

ical conﬁguration can include a 400MHz PowerPC,

64MB of EPROM, and 64MB of RAM. The CPU

can be complemented with ﬁeld-programmable gate

arrays (FPGAs) that integrate logic and signal pre-

processing functionality. An automation device usually

includes a number of printed circuit board assem-

blies (PCBA), accommodating requirements for the

diversity and number of different input and output

circuitry. High-speed serial communication is built in

for intermodule communication that enables the CPU

to send and acquire data from the input and output

modules. Application-speciﬁc circuits are designed to

optimize overall technical and economical objectives.

Figure 32.14 shows a sample of a high-performance

CPU module, connected to a binary input and Ethernet

communication module.

32.11 Summary and Emerging Trends

Product automation is a highly dynamic and interdisci-

plinary ﬁeld of technology.

The attempt to automate almost all individual de-

vices from consumer products to large machines and

systems is an ongoing trend.

Part D 32.11

558 Part D Automation Design: Theory and Methods for Integration

It is driven by the advances in miniaturization,

cost, and performance of electronic components and the

standardization of cross-device functions such as com-

munication.

The broad application range of product automation

requires both general understanding of the development

of electronics and software as well as speciﬁc knowl-

edge of the tasks of the products to be automated.

With a higher degree of standardization and modu-

larization of embedded systems the implementation of

product automation will continue with high speed.

To facilitate an efﬁcient implementation of embed-

ded systems as the heart of product automation future

research will focus on three areas:

•

Reference designs and architecture

•

Seamless connectivity and middleware

•

System design methods and tools

The target will be a generic platform of abstract com-

ponents with high reusability for the applications. This

platform shall facilitate a standardized interface to the

environment and allow for the addition of application-

speciﬁc modules. An overriding feature here is the

lowest possible power consumption of the embedded

systems.

Further steps will deal with the self-conﬁguration

and self-organization of components that form the prod-

uct automation system. There is a clear trend towards

ubiquitous connectivity schemes and networks for those

systems.

Last not least, design methods and tools must be

further developed addressing the various levels of the

complex systems. This set of methods will include open

interface standards, automatic validation and testing as

well as simulation. We willalso see progress in therapid

design and prototyping of complex systems.

References

32.1 V.L. Trevathan (Ed.): A Guide to the Automation

Body of Knowledge, 2nd edn. (ISA, Durham 2006)

32.2 J. Fraden: Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics,

Designs, and Applications (Springer, New York

2003)

32.3 J.S. Wilson: Sensor Technology Handbook (Elsevier,

Amsterdam 2005)

32.4 G.K. McMillan, D.M. Considine: Process/Instruments

and Controls Handbook (McGrawHill,NewYork

1999)

32.5 N.S. Nise: Control Systems Engineering (Wiley, New

York 2007)

32.6 R.C. Dorf, R.H. Bishop: Modern Control Systems

(Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River 2007)

32.7 H. Janocha: Actuators: Basics and Applications

(Springer, New York 2004)

32.8 B. Nesbitt: Handbook of Valves and Actuators

(Butterworth–Heinemann, Oxford 2007)

32.9 R. Huck: Feeling the heat, ABB Rev. Spec. Rep.

Instrum. Anal. (2006) pp. 17–19

32.10 W. Scholz: Performing under pressure, ABB Rev.

Spec. Rep. Instrum. Anal. (2006) pp. 14–16

32.11 K. Bohnert, P. Guggenbach: A revolution in DC high

current measurement, ABB Rev. 1, 6–10 (2005)

32.12 P. Krippner, B. Andres, P. Szasz, T. Bauer, M. Wet-

zko: Microsystems at work, ABB Rev. 4,68–73

(2006)

32.13 C. Liu: Foundations of MEMS (Prentice Hall, Upper

Saddle River 2005)

32.14 J.W. Gardner, V. Varadan, O.O. Awadelkarim: Mi-

crosensors, MEMS and Smart Devices (Wiley, New

York 2001)

32.15 F. Viaro: Breaking news, ABB Rev. 3,27–31(2004)

32.16 A. Hughes: Electric Motors and Drives (Elsevier, Am-

sterdam 2005)

32.17 I. Ruohonen: Drivers of change, ABB Rev. 2,23–25

(2006)

32.18 M. Paakkonen: Simplicity at your ﬁngertips, ABB

Rev. Spec. Rep. Motors Drives (2004) pp. 55–57

32.19 S.Y. Nof: Handbook of Industrial Robotics (Wiley,

New York 1999)

32.20 F.L. Lewis, D.M. Dawson, C.T. Abdallah: Robot

Manipulator Control: Theory and Practice (Marcel

Dekker, New York 2004)

32.21 H.J. Andersson: Picking pizza picker, ABB Rev. Spec.

Rep. Robot. (2005) pp. 31–34

32.22 C. Bredin: Team-mates, ABB Rev. Spec. Rep. Robot.

(2005) pp. 53–56

32.23 S. Keeping: The future of instrumentation, ABB Rev.

Spec. Rep. Instrum. Anal. (2006) pp. 40–43

32.24 G. Martin, R. Zurawski: Trends in embedded sys-

tems, ABB Rev. 2, 9–13 (2006)

32.25 K. Scherrer: Embedded power protection, ABB Rev.

2, 18–22 (2006)

Part D 32

559

Service Autom

33. Service Automation

Friedrich Pinnekamp

A fast and effective industrial service, supporting

plants with a broad spectrum of assistance from

preventive maintenance to emergency repair, rests

on two legs: the physical transport of people and

equipment, and the provision of the vast variety

of information required by service personnel.

While the automation of physical movement is

limited, data management for efﬁcient servicing,

including optimized logistics for transport, is

increasingly expanding throughout the service

industry.

This chapter discusses the basic requirements

for the automation of service and gives examples

of how the challenging issues involved can be

solved.

33.1 Deﬁnition of Service Automation ........... 559

33.2 Life Cycle of a Plant .............................. 559

33.3 Key Tasks and Features

of Industrial Service.............................. 560

33.4 Real-Time Performance Monitoring........ 562

33.5 Analysis of Performance ........................ 563

33.6 Information Required for Effective

and Efﬁcient Service ............................. 563

33.7 Logistics Support .................................. 566

33.8 Remote Service..................................... 567

33.9 Tools for Service Personnel .................... 568

33.10 Emerging Trends:

Towards a Fully Automated Service ........ 568

References .................................................. 569

33.1 Deﬁnition of Service Automation

To be able to describe the automation of service, we

must ﬁrst deﬁne what we mean by service. While it is

obvious that in the context of this Handbook we are

not talking about public religious worship or the act

of putting a ball into play in a tennis match, the wide

application of the word service still requires a stricter

deﬁnition.

Service in general is an act of helpful activity, but

in the context of this chapter we shall restrict our-

selves to considering the provision of the activities that

industry requires. In particular, we want to address

organized systems of apparatus, appliances, employ-

ees, etc. for providing supportive activities to industrial

operations.

In this narrower sensewe will discuss how industrial

service is automated. Other types of service automation

are discussed in more detail in Chaps. 62, 65, 66, 68 and

71–74 of this Handbook.

33.2 Life Cycle of a Plant

Everyphysical object inuse shows signs ofwear oncein

operation. This istrue forcars, airplanes, ships, comput-

ers, and combining many individual devices, for plants.

Operators of an industrial plant are well aware of

this natural behavior of equipment and react accord-

ingly to avoid deterioration of plant performance.

The value of the installation is decreasing, the

reason for the depreciation, and there are different

strategies for countermeasures.

Figure 33.1 shows an overview of the main strate-

gies to extend the useful life cycle of an industrial

plant.

Part D 33

560 Part D Automation Design: Theory and Methods for Integration

Va lues to customer through maintenance

Optimized

maintenance line

Upgrade

retrofit or

replace

Maintenance

Aging

Overhaul

Repair

Time

Fig. 33.1 Various approaches to maintenance during the lifecycle of

an industrial plant [33.5]

Continuous maintenance is a way to keep perfor-

mance at a high level, while overhaul is done at regular

intervals and repair in case of need (see Chap.42 on Re-

liability, Maintenance and Safety, and [33.1–4]). When

retroﬁt and replacement is combined with a perfor-

mance upgrade, the value of the plant can even be

increased.

Performance ofmaintenance, overhaul, repair or up-

grade has an associated cost and which strategy is most

beneﬁcial depends very much on the plant concerned.

A car manufacturer with a robotized workﬂow and high

production rate cannot afford the outage of a line due to

a malfunctioning robot, and the cost of a standing line

can easily be calculated. However, a factory in batch

operation with long delays in production may be less

sensitive to an outage.

In any case the cost of service shall be as low as

possible to provide a positive balance to the economic

equation. Cost of service has three main elements: the

parts that have to be replaced, the man-hours for per-

forming the service, and last but not least, the cost of

interrupted production, the latter being proportional to

time of outage.

Thus time and cost efﬁciency are the critical fac-

tors of any service and are the main driving forces

to automate the task to the highest possible extent.

In this sense service is following the trend of imple-

menting information technology (IT) to speed up and

rationalize its performance, as is done in ofﬁce work or

production.

33.3 Key Tasks and Features of Industrial Service

Before we discuss the automation of industrial services,

we must describe the aspects and tasks of industrial ser-

vice in order to understand the different approaches to

automation in this area. Service comes onto the stage

after an industrial plant or subsystems of plants or even

individual products in an industrial operation have been

installed and placed into operation.

Order spare

parts and tools

Logistics of

persons and

material

Measure the

actual

performance

No immediate service required

Forecast the

future

performance

Decide

Carry out

service

Provide all

information to

service

personnel

Fig. 33.2 Major steps in industrial service

For the operator of an industrial plant, it is

of utmost important that the equipment is available

with optimum performance at any time that it is

needed. For some systems in a plant this means 24h

a day and 365days a year, whereas for others this

may apply for only a few weeks spread over the

year.

Part D 33.3

Service Automation 33.3 Key Tasks and Features of Industrial Service 561

Even though industrial plants prefer to have equip-

ment that does not require any service, maintenance

or repair, planned outage for overhaul is generally ac-

cepted and sometimes unavoidable.A largerotating kiln

in a cement plant, for example, must usually be ﬁt-

ted with a new liner every year, stopping production

for a short time. Mostly unacceptable, however, are un-

planned outages due to malfunction of equipment.

The better prepared a supplier of this equipment is

to react to these unplanned events, the more appreciated

this service will be.

Taking this into account, industrial service must

strive to:

•

Keep equipment at maximum performance all the

time

•

Provide well-planned service at times of planned

outage

•

Restore optimum performance as quickly and effec-

tively as possible after unplanned outages.

Figure 33.2 shows the major steps to be taken for

any service action. As we can see in this ﬁgure, there

is a layer of information gathering, analyzing, and ex-

change and a logistic element, including the physical

transport. Both elements can be automated and it is ob-

Control systems Drives and motors RoboticsMarine Industrial

enabled

products and systems

Instruments and

low-voltage

products

Field engineer

Propulsion

predictive

maintenance

Asset

optimization

Web-based

maintenance

management

softwae

On-line

parts

Remote

drive

monitoring

Remote

robot

services

Call center

Analysis & feedback layer

Communication layer

Connection layer

Internet, modem, direct line, etc.

Fig. 33.3 Tasks and communication channels of a service organization [33.6]

vious that the information-related aspect has attracted

the highest degree of automation to date.

In a more detailed view, the following aspects have

to be considered:

•

The actual performance of the equipment must be

known.

•

A forecast of possible changes in the performance

must be available.

•

Detailed knowledge of the scheduled use of the

equipment is necessary.

•

Efﬁcient, real-time communication about distur-

bances must exist.

•

Optimum logistics must enable fast and effective

service action.

In more technical terms, an optimum service is based

on:

•

Real-time performance monitoring of the equip-

ment

•

Knowledge-based extrapolation of future perfor-

mance

•

Knowledge about use of the equipment in the indus-

trial environment

Part D 33.3

562 Part D Automation Design: Theory and Methods for Integration

•

Adequate communication channels between equip-

ment and service provider

•

Access to relevant equipment data and metadata for

the service personnel

•

Access to hardware and tools to restore equipment

performance efﬁciently.

Figure 33.3 shows the tasks and communication chan-

nels for a service organization that takes care of a vari-

ety of products. Each of these tasks can be automated.

The following sections describe in more detail

the critical aspects of service and how they can be

automated.

33.4 Real-Time Performance Monitoring

Fig. 33.4 Real-time measurement of the energy efﬁciency

of ﬁve motors in a plant [33.7]

Fig. 33.5 Structured view of devices in a plant with some aspects

related to them [33.7]

In order to keep a plant in optimum operation,

all devices must work properly; this means that their

performance must be monitored. This can be done

by regular inspection by service personnel, or in an

automated way, i.e., by equipping each device with ad-

equate sensors [33.8–10].

In Chap.20 the sensors suitable for the automation

of the functions of a product are described in more

detail. As an illustrative example of the automation

of service, we have chosen a motor, which is a typ-

ical example in industry with motors accounting for

more than 60% of the electrical energy consumed by

industry.

Figure 33.4 shows a real-time measurement of ﬁve

motors in a plant. Here the speciﬁc aspect of efﬁciency

is displayed, composed from sensors that measure cur-

rent, voltage, heat, and torque. Information of this type

is a useful indicator of the motor’s performance and, to-

gether with other motor data, for example, the vibration

level and its frequency spectrum, can be used to judge

whether intervention is required.

With an efﬁcient data structure (Sect. 33.6) simi-

lar real-time performance can be displayed for all the

devices in a plant, provided that they are equipped

with suitable sensors. Figure 33.5 shows a display

in which the operator can easily view relevant in-

formation from all aspects and systems in his plant.

In this view, the functional structure of the plant is

displayed and, for each physical object, a number

of aspects, shown in the right menu, are listed. In

this example, the plant operator can obtain informa-

tion about the product data of the motor or energy

losses.

All these dataare valuable for theservice task, based

on which predictions about future performance of the

parts can be made.

Part D 33.4

Service Automation 33.6 Information Required for Effective and Efﬁcient Service 563

33.5 Analysis of Performance

An experienced plant operator or service engineer can

use device performance information measured in real

time to determine further actions. Modern IT sys-

tems support this task. The various data are analyzed

and knowledge-based systems propose further actions,

which may for example include the replacement of

a component, a scheduled service within a certain in-

terval or some other preventive intervention. When

more background knowledge is considered in the pro-

gramming, these systems can also include the ﬁnancial

and environmental consequences of a replacement, as

showninFig.33.6.

The example given in Fig.33.6 also shows that in-

formation from different functions, here engineering,

Fig. 33.6 Result of online real-time analysis of motor performance based on evaluation of various parameters [33.7]

service, and ﬁnances, are increasingly being combined

to provide a consistent view of the whole industrial op-

eration.

This accumulated knowledge and experience helps

engineers to decide what equipment needs to be in-

spected and when, as well as to establish where failure

would be least acceptable and cause the most prob-

lems. This makes it easier to see where effort has to

be focused in order to maximize return. It facilitates

the optimization of examination intervals whilst at the

same time identifying equipment for which noninvasive

examinations would be equally effective.

More innovative automation in this direction can be

expected in the future.

33.6 Information Required for Effective and Efﬁcient Service

The amount of data and background information that

a service engineer requires to enable a fast reaction is

enormous; the list below describes the major aspects:

•

Location of the equipment and description of how

to reach it, including local access procedures

•

Technical data, including drawings and part lists

•

Purpose of the equipment and expected perfor-

mance

•

Connection of equipment to other parts ofthe instal-

lation

•

Security issues in handling the equipment

•

Historical data for the equipment, including previ-

ous service actions

Part D 33.6

564 Part D Automation Design: Theory and Methods for Integration

Fig. 33.7 Display of geographical information in relation to a fault in a transmission grid [33.11]

Product documentation

Configuration

Commissioning

Parameterization

Asset monitoring

Operation

Diagnosis

Maintenance management

Real object

Object type, delivered with the

device type library

Each device type object includes

aspects for

Fig. 33.8 Multidimensional structure connecting objects with their various aspects [33.12]

Part D 33.6