Kutz M. Handbook of materials selection
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698 NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION
Polymer
(20⬚C Unless Noted)
Longitudinal
Wave Speed
(⫻10
5
cm/s)
Transverse
Wave Speed
(⫻10
5
cm/s)
Density
(g/cm
3
)
Cork 0.5 — 0.2
Delrin (acetalhomo
polymer) (0
⬚C) 2.515 — 1.42
Ebonite 2.50 — 1.15
Lexan
(Polycarbonate 0
⬚C) 2.28 — 1.19
Neoprene 1.730 — 1.42
Nylon 2.68 — —
Nylon 6,6 1.68 — —
Paraffin 2.20 0.83 —
Perspex 2.70 1.33 1.29
Phenolic 1.42 — 1.34
Plexiglas
UVA 2.76 — 1.27
UVA II 2.73 1.43 1.18
Polyacrylonitrile–
butadiene–styrene I
2.16 1.43 1.18
Polyacrylonitrile–
butadiene–styrene II
2.20 0.810 1.022
Polybutadiene rubber 1.57 — 1.10
Polycaprolactam 2.700 1.12 1.146
Polycarboranesilonane 1.450 — 1.041
Polydimethylsiloxane 1.020 — 1.045
Polyepoxide
⫹ glass
spheres I
2.220 1.170 0.691
Polyepoxide
⫹ glass
spheres II
2.400 1.280 0.718
Polyepoxide
⫹ glass
spheres III
2.100 1.020 0.793
Polyepoxide
⫹ MPDA 2.820 1.230 1.205
Polyester
⫹ water 1.840 0.650 1.042
Polyethylene 2.67 — 1.10
Polyhexamethylene
adipamide
2.710 1.120 1.147
Polymethacrylate 2.690 1.344 1.191
Polyoxymethylene 2.440 1.000 1.425
Polyproplene 2.650 1.300 0.913
Polystyrene 2.400 1.150 1.052
Polysulfane resin 2.297 — 1.24
Polytetrafluoroethylene
(Teflon)
1.380 — 2.177
Polyvinylbutyral 2.350 — 1.107
Polyvinyl chloride 2.300 — —
Polyvinylidene chloride 2.400 — —
Polyvinylidene fluoride 1.930 — 1.779
Rubber
India 1.48 — 0.90
Natural 1.55 — 1.12
Rubber/ carbon
(100/ 40) 1.68 — —
Silicon rubber 0.948 — 1.48
APPENDIX B: ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITIES 699
APPENDIX B: ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITIES AND CONDUCTIVITIES OF
METALS AND ALLOYS
17
Common Name (Classification)
Resistivity
(⍀-cm ⫻ 10
⫺6
)
Conductivity
(% IACS)
Ingot iron (included for comparison) 9 19
Plain carbon steel (AISI–SAE 1020) 10 17
Stainless steel type 304 72 2.4
Cast gray iron (ASTH A48-48, Class 25) 67 2.6
Malleable iron (ASTM A47) 30 5
⬘7
Ductile cast iron (ASTH A339, A395) 60 2.9
Ni (resist cast iron, type 2) 170 1.0
Cast 28-7 alloy 11D (ASTH A297–63T) 41 4.2
Hastelloy C 139 1.2
Hastelloy X 115 1.5
Haynes stellite alloy 25 8B 2.0
Inconel X (annealed) 122 1.4
Inconel 600 98 1.7
Aluminum alloy 3003, rolled (ASTH B221) 4 43
Aluminum alloy 2017, annealed (ASTH B221) 4 43
Aluminum alloy 380 (ASTH SC84B) 7.5 23
A# Aluminum alloy
6061-T-6 4.1 42
7075-T-6 5.3 32
2024-T-4 5.2 30
Copper (ASTH B152, B124, B133, B1, B2, B3) 1.7 1.0
⫻ 10
2
Yellow brass or high brass (ASTH B36, B134, B135) 7 25
70-30 brass 6.2 28
Aluminum bronze
ASTH B169, alloy A 12 14
ASTH B124, B130
Phosphor bronzes 16 11
Nickel silver I B% alloy A wrought (ASTH B
122, No. 2)
29 5.9
Cupronickel 30% 35 4.9
Red brass, cast (ASTH B30, No. 4A) 11 16
Chemical lead 21 8.2
Antimonial lead (hard lead) 23 7.5
Solder 50-50 15 N
Ti–6Al–4V alloy 172 1.0
Magnesium alloy AZ31 B 9 19
K Monel 58 3.0
Nickel (ASTH B160, B161, B162) 10 17
Cupronickel 55-45 (Constantan) 49 3.5
Commercial titanium 80 2.2
Waspaloy 123 1.4
Zinc (ASTH B69) 6 29
Zircaloy-2 72 2.4
Zirconium (commercial) 41 4.2
700 NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION
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19. J. T. Schmidt and K. Skeie, ‘‘Magnetic Particle Testing,’’ in The Nondestructive Testing Hand-
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20. R. S. Sharpe, ‘‘Research Techniques in Nondestructive Testing,’’ Vol I–V, Academic Press, New
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29. Sensors—The Journal of Applied Sensing Technology.
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31. V. E. Shcherbinin (Ed.), Russian Journal of Nondestructive Testing (a translation of Defecto-
skopiya), Consultants Bureau & Plenum Press,
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of Advanced Materials, Vol. ASTM STP 1157, American Society for Testing and Materials, West
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37. American Institute of Physics, Online Journal Publication Service, http: / / ojps.aip.org.
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39. Northwestern University, Center for Quality Engineering & Failure Prevention, http:/ /
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40. Fraunhofer Institute for Non-Destructive Testing, Fraunhofer IZFP, http: / / www.fhg.de /english /
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702 NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION
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PART 5
FAILURE ANALYSIS
HandbookofMaterialsSelection.EditedbyMyerKutz
Copyright Ó 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NewYork.
705
CHAPTER 25
FAILURE MODES: PERFORMANCE
AND SERVICE REQUIREMENTS FOR
METALS
J. A. Collins
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
S. R. Daniewicz
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Mississippi State University
Starkville, Mississippi
1 CRITERIA OF FAILURE 705
2 FAILURE MODES 706
3 ELASTIC DEFORMATION AND
YIELDING 712
4 FRACTURE MECHANICS AND
UNSTABLE CRACK GROWTH 715
5 FATIGUE 722
5.1 Fatigue Loading and Laboratory
Testing 723
5.2 S–N–P Curves: A Basic Design
Tool 727
5.3 Factors That Affect S–N–P
Curves 728
5.4 Nonzero Mean Stress 729
5.5 Fatigue Crack Propagation 735
6 CREEP AND STRESS RUPTURE 740
6.1 Prediction of Long-Term Creep
Behavior 742
6.2 Creep under a Uniaxial State
of Stress 743
7 FRETTING AND WEAR 746
7.1 Fretting Phenomena 747
7.2 Wear Phenomena 756
8 CORROSION AND STRESS
CORROSION 761
8.1 Types of Corrosion 762
8.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking 769
9 FAILURE ANALYSIS AND
RETROSPECTIVE DESIGN 770
REFERENCES 770
1 CRITERIA OF FAILURE
Any change in the size, shape, or material properties of a structure, machine, or
machine part that renders it incapable of performing its intended function must
be regarded as a mechanical failure of the device. It should be carefully noted
that the key concept here is that improper functioning of a machine part consti-
tutes failure. Thus, a shear pin that does not separate into two or more pieces
upon the application of a preselected overload must be regarded as having failed
HandbookofMaterialsSelection.EditedbyMyerKutz
Copyright Ó 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NewYork.
706 FAILURE MODES
as surely as a drive shaft has failed if it does separate into two pieces under
normal expected operating loads.
Failure of a device or structure to function properly might be brought about
by any one or a combination of many different responses to loads and environ-
ments while in service. For example, too much or too little elastic deformation
might produce failure. A fractured load-carrying structural member or a shear
pin that does not shear under overload conditions each would constitute failure.
Progression of a crack due to fluctuating loads or aggressive environment might
lead to failure after a period of time if resulting excessive deflection or fracture
interferes with proper machine function.
A primary responsibility of any mechanical designer is to ensure that his or
her design functions as intended for the prescribed design lifetime and, at the
same time, that it be competitive in the marketplace. Success in designing com-
petitive products while averting premature mechanical failures can be achieved
consistently only by recognizing and evaluating all potential modes of failure
that might govern the design. To recognize potential failure modes a designer
must be acquainted with the array of failure modes observed in practice, and
with the conditions leading to these failures. The following section summarizes
the mechanical failure modes most commonly observed in practice, followed by
a brief description of each one.
2 FAILURE MODES
A failure mode may be defined as the physical process or processes that take
place or that combine their effects to produce a failure. In the following list of
commonly observed failure modes, it may be noted that some failure modes are
unilateral phenomena, whereas others are combined phenomena. For example,
fatigue is listed as a failure mode, corrosion is listed as a failure mode, and
corrosion fatigue is listed as still another failure mode. Such combinations are
included because they are commonly observed, important, and often synergistic.
In the case of corrosion fatigue, for example, the presence of active corrosion
aggravates the fatigue process and at the same time the presence of a fluctuating
load accelerates the corrosion process.
The following list is not presented in any special order, but it includes all
commonly observed modes of mechanical failure
1
:
1. Force and/or temperature-induced elastic deformation
2. Yielding
3. Brinnelling
4. Ductile rupture
5. Brittle fracture
6. Fatigue
a. High-cycle fatigue
b. Low-cycle fatigue
c. Thermal fatigue
d. Surface fatigue
e. Impact fatigue
2 FAILURE MODES 707
f. Corrosion fatigue
g. Fretting fatigue
7. Corrosion
a. Direct chemical attack
b. Galvanic corrosion
c. Crevice corrosion
d. Pitting corrosion
e. Intergranular corrosion
f. Selective leaching
g. Erosion corrosion
h. Cavitation corrosion
i. Hydrogen damage
j. Biological corrosion
k. Stress corrosion
8. Wear
a. Adhesive wear
b. Abrasive wear
c. Corrosive wear
d. Surface fatigue wear
e. Deformation wear
f. Impact wear
g. Fretting wear
9. Impact
a. Impact fracture
b. Impact deformation
c. Impact wear
d. Impact fretting
e. Impact fatigue
10. Fretting
a. Fretting fatigue
b. Fretting wear
c. Fretting corrosion
11. Creep
12. Thermal relaxation
13. Stress rupture
14. Thermal shock
15. Galling and seizure
16. Spalling
17. Radiation damage
18. Buckling
19. Creep buckling
708 FAILURE MODES
20. Stress corrosion
21. Corrosion wear
22. Corrosion fatigue
23. Combined creep and fatigue
As commonly used in engineering practice, the failure modes just listed may
be defined and described briefly as follows. It should be emphasized that these
failure modes only produce failure when they generate a set of circumstances
that interferes with the proper functioning of a machine or device.
Force and/or temperature-induced elastic deformation failure occurs when-
ever the elastic (recoverable) deformation in a machine member, induced by the
imposed operational loads or temperatures, becomes large enough to interfere
with the ability of the machine to perform its intended function satisfactorily.
Yielding failure occurs when the plastic (unrecoverable) deformation in a duc-
tile machine member, brought about by the imposed operational loads or mo-
tions, becomes large enough to interfere with the ability of the machine to
perform its intended function satisfactorily.
Brinnelling failure occurs when the static forces between two curved surfaces
in contact result in local yielding of one or both mating members to produce a
permanent surface discontinuity of significant size. For example, if a ball bearing
is statically loaded so that a ball is forced to permanently indent the race through
local plastic flow, the race is brinnelled. Subsequent operation of the bearing
might result in intolerably increased vibration, noise, and heating; and, therefore,
failure would have occurred.
Ductile rupture failure occurs when the plastic deformation, in a machine part
that exhibits ductile behavior, is carried to the extreme so that the member
separates into two pieces. Initiation and coalescence of internal voids slowly
propagate to failure, leaving a dull, fibrous rupture surface.
Brittle fracture failure occurs when the elastic deformation, in a machine part
that exhibits brittle behavior, is carried to the extreme so that the primary inter-
atomic bonds are broken and the member separates into two or more pieces.
Preexisting flaws or growing cracks form initiation sites for very rapid crack
propagation to catastrophic failure, leaving a granular, multifaceted fracture sur-
face.
Fatigue failure is a general term given to the sudden and catastrophic sepa-
ration of a machine part into two or more pieces as a result of the application
of fluctuating loads or deformations over a period of time. Failure takes place
by the initiation and propagation of a crack until it becomes unstable and prop-
agates suddenly to failure. The loads and deformations that typically cause fail-
ure by fatigue are far below the static or monotonic failure levels. When loads
or deformations are of such magnitude that more than about 10,000 cycles are
required to produce failure, the phenomenon is usually termed high-cycle fatigue.
When loads or deformations are of such magnitude that less than about 10,000
cycles are required to produce failure, the phenomenon is usually termed low-
cycle fatigue. When load or strain cycling is produced by a fluctuating temper-
ature field in the machine part, the process is usually termed thermal fatigue.
Surface fatigue failure, usually associated with rolling surfaces in contact, man-