Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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beeninvestedinapolicyitiseasiertoseeitfailthantoabandonit.Iarguedto

Rogers—somewhatdisingenuously—thatinthelightofhiseffectivespeech,there

wasnoneedfortheUnitedStatestodomore.Thisploy,I shouldhaveknown,

wouldnotlongimmobilizethesteamroller.Statesentarecommendationtothe

PresidentthatthedetailedIsrael‐Jordanpeaceplan—originallyclaimed tobeonly

for“guidance”—beformallypresentedintheFour‐Powertalks,to“roundout”

theUSposition.



Bynowthedebatehadbecomestylized.Thosewhowantedtoadvance

specificproposalsthoughtthatthiswouldimproveourstandingintheArab

world.Myviewwasthatifwewerenotreadytoimposeourproposalsthemere

presentationofthemwouldgainusatmosttwotothreeweeksbeforewewere

againfacedwiththechoiceofofferingmoreorlettingthenegotiationblow up.

TheproponentsofspecificitythoughtthattheSovietUnioncouldbeinducedto

bemoderate.IbelievedthatasteadystreamofAmericanconcessionswould

increaseSoviettemptationstoactasthelawyerforArabradicals.Proponentsof

anactivepolicywantedtowintheradicalregimestooursidebymaking 

increasinglygenerousoffers.Iarguedthattheradicalregimescouldnotbewon

over;theirmoderationwasmorelikelyifweinsistedonachangeofcourseasa

preconditionofmajorAmericaninvolvement.



AttheNSCmeetingitself,Ichallengedthefundamentalpremiseofour

diplomacythatthecontinuingstalematestrengthenedtheSovietUnion’s

position.Inmyviewtheoppositewasthecase;thelongerthestalemate

continuedthemoreobviouswoulditbecomethattheSovietUnionhadfailedto

deliverwhattheArabswanted.Astimewenton,itsArabclientswereboundto

concludethatfriendshipwiththeSovietUnionwasnotthekeytorealizingtheir

aims.Soonerorlater,ifwekeptournerve,thiswouldforceareassessmentof

evenradicalArabpolicy.



Thiswasmystrategy,whichgraduallybecameourpolicyfrom1969onward

(overthecorpsesofvariousStateDepartmentpeaceplans,gunne d downbythe

passionsofthepartiesinthearearatherthanbyme).In1972and1973the

strategybegantosucceed.



TheoutcomeoftheNSCmeetingofDecember10wasinasensecontrary

tothethrustofitsdiscussion.Unwillingtooverrule hisSecretaryofStatebutalso

unpreparedtofacetheconsequencesofashowdo wnwithIsrael,Nixondecided

tolettheJordanproposalgoforwardwhilekeepingtheWhiteHouseasfaraway

fromitaspossible.Onceagain,hewashopingtodeflecttheexpectedcriticism

towardtheStateDepartmentwhilegainingwhateverdiplomaticbenefitthere

wasfromthepresentationoftheplan.OnDecember17,therefore,Nixon

authorizedthesubmissionoftheJordanpapertotheFour‐Powertalks.Atthe

sametime,NixonorderedthatprivateassurancesbegiventoMrs.MeirviaLen

Garmentthatwewouldgonofurtherandthatwewouldnotpressourproposal.



Whilethebureaucracyhasbeenknowntodragitsfeetinimplementing

directiveswithwhichitdisagrees,itsalacrityincarryingoutinstructionsthatit

favorsandthatitfearsmaybechangediswonderfultobehold.AmbassadorYost

submittedtheJordanplanonDecember18withintwenty‐fourhoursofits

approval.



DespiteNixon’sassurances,theIsraelisunleashedapublicandprivate

stormovertheRogersspeech,theresumptionofFour‐Powertalks,andthe

Jordanpaper.Mrs.MeircalledaspecialCabinetmeetingtoconsiderUS‐Israeli

relations.AnIsraeliofficialtoldLenGarmentthatMrs.Meirwas“bitterly

disappointed”and“heartbroken”andthoughtthesituation“ascandal”and

“calamitous.”ForeignMinister EbanpubliclychargedthattheUnitedStateshad

withhelddetailsoftheJordanpaperfromIsraelbeforesubmittingit,eventhough

hehadmetwithRogersonDecember16.StateDepartmentofficialsretortedthat

RogersdescribedtheplantoEbaningeneralterms.OnDecember22adelegation

ofAmericanJewishleadersmetwithRogerstoexpresstheirconcern.TheIsraeli

CabinetissuedastatementflatlyrejectingtheUSproposals;Mrs.Meirwassaidto

considerthemadangerous“appeasement”oftheArabs.



ToquellIsraelifears,SiscosuggestedthatweexplainthattheNixon

Administrationpositionsdifferedlittlefromthoseoftheprevious

Administration—underscoringthehometruthofourpoliticsthatanew

administrationisneversoeagertodemonstratecontinuityaswhenitfindsitself

introuble.Hefurthe rrecommendedanearlyandpositivedecisiononIsraeli

requestsforeconomicandmilitaryaid.Nixonapproved.Thissetinmotionacycle

inwhicheverynegotiatingstepofwhichIsraeldisapprovedwascoupledwitha

step‐upofIsraeliassistanceprogramswithoutachievingarealmeetingofminds

withIsrael.



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****



TheEvolvingStrategy



houghwehadmovedinlessthanninemonthsfromdiscussionofgeneral

principlestothepresentationofspecificplans,therewasnodiplomatic

progress.NordidrelationswithEgyptimprove.Aprincipalreasonmaywellhave

beenthatwehadlittledirectcontactwithEgypt,andNassercouldonlyconclude

thatthelongerhewaitedthebetterourofferswouldbecome.Hehadnoneedto

choosebetweenhisSovietconnection,hisradicalpolicies,andAmericansupport

solongaseveryfewmonthsanotherunreciprocatedAmericanmoveoccurred.

Ourpositiononfrontiershadmovedprogressivelyinonedirection—fromthe

“weightofconquest”to“rectifications”to“insubstantialalterations.”No

correspondingshifthadtakenplaceontheradicalAraborSovietsideonthe

criticalissueofpeac e.Atthesametime,theSovietUniondidnotyetperceive

thatithadmosttolosefromastalemate;allitdidwastoadditscritic ismsto

Nasser’s.OnDecember23,aftertwomonthsofwaiting,theSovietsfinallyreplied

toourproposalofOctober28whichhadsupportedessentiallythe1967borders.

Theyrejectedit.DobrynincomplainedtomethattheMiddleEastnegotiations

werestalledandgoingnowhere.Moscow,hesaid,nowwantedtheMiddleEast

tobeoneofthesubjectsdiscussedintheChannelsinceitwasclearthatsuch

questionscouldonlyreallybesettled“atthehighestlevel.”Itoldhimthatwehad

littletoaddtoourexistingformulations.Assooften,theSovietshadsavedusby

overplayingtheirhand.TheFour ‐PoweraswellastheTwo‐Powertalkswere

dead.BynowNixonfirmlysharedmyviewthattimewasnotripefora

settlement;buthepreferredtoletourinitiativerunoutofsteamratherthangive

aclear‐cutorder.

T



OverthewinterItriedtoreflecthisviewsindraftingthePresident’sfirst

ForeignPolicyReporttotheCongress.Inordertolowerpublicexpectationsthe

firstdrafthadasentencesayingthattheArab‐Israeliconflictwas“intractable.”

TheStateDepartmentletoutahowlofprotest,arguingthatthisgloomyview

undercutalltheirefforts.Ratherthandobattle,Isoftenedthesentencetoreadin

thefinalversion(publishedFebruary18,1970)thattheArab‐Israeliproblem“has

seriouselementsofintractability.”ThismollifiedtheMiddleEastexperts.The

literaryclumsinessofthisphrasereflectedtheuneasybureaucraticcompromise.

Nobetterexamplecouldbefoundoftheoldmaximthatacamelisahorse

designedbyacommittee.



Butthroughthediplomaticdea dlocktheunderlyingissueswerebecoming

clear.Theformalpositionsofthepartieswerebutthetipoftheiceberg.TheArab

states,withtheexceptionofJordan,wereclearlynotpreparedforarealpeace

expressedinnormalrelationswithIsraeloranyconcretedefinitionofsecurity.

Israelwasnotwillingtoreturnalltheterritories—probablynoteveninreturnfor

thedefinitionofpeaceitwasputtingforward.Theconflictbetweenthepositions

ofthepartiesthenwasinfactintractable.



Nassercountedonustoextricatehimfromtheconsequencesofhis

recklessnessin1967.Buthewasunwillingtorelinquishhisroleaschampionof

radicalArabnationalism,whichforcedhimintoastridentanti‐Americanposture

onalmostallinternationalissues.Norwashereadytoabandontheillusionthat

thebestwaytoenlisttheUnitedStateswasthroughSovietblackmail.Thisled

himtoconductmostnegotiationsthroughMoscowratherthandealwithus

directly.TheSoviets,inturn,eitherthroughlackofimaginationorinorderto

maintaintheirclaimasdefendersofradicalnationalism,stucktotherigid

advocacyofmaximumArabdemands.Therewasnoreasonwhyweshouldpull

thechestnutsofthisunlikelyallianceoutofthefire. Andthereforeallthevarious

negotiatingschemesof1969provedstillborn.



ButthroughthisturmoiltheinherentstrengthoftheAmericanpositionin

theMiddleEastalsograduallyemerged.Nobodycouldmakepeacewithoutus.

Onlywe,nottheSovietUnion,couldexertinfluenceonIsrael.Israelwastoo

strongtosuccumbtoArabmilitarypressure,andwe couldblockalldiplomatic

activityuntiltheArabsshowedtheirwillingnesstoreciprocateIsraeliconcessions.

Ifweremainedsteadyandrefusedtobestampeded,thepivotalnatureofour

positionwouldbecomemoreandmoreevident.Nixonequivocated,believingin

mystrategybutauthorizing(andthenaborting)State’stactics.Intheprocess,

partlybydefault,webegantofollowmypreferredcourse.Thebureaucratic

stalemateachievedwhatIfavoredasamatterofpolicy:aninconclusivecourse

thatovertimewasboundtoinduceatleastsomeArableaderstoreconsiderthe

utilityofrelyingonSovietarmsandradicalposturingtoachievetheirends.Once

itbecameclear—forwhateverreason—thatasettlementcouldnotbeextorted

fromus,ArableaderswouldgraduallylearnthatSovietpressuresonusandtheir

ownintransigenceonlyproducedstagnation.Theywould,Ithought,haveto

cometousintheend.



Soin1969,notwithoutdebateandmuchhesitation,thebasiswaslaidfor

thelaterreversalofalliancesintheMiddleEast.Butittookalongtime,further

crises,andananguishingwartocompleteit.



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

XI



TheUneasyAlliance:

EuropeandtheUnitedStates



DilemmasofEurope’sSuccess



verynewAdministrationsince1960hascomeintoofficeconvincedthatits

predecessorneglectedAtlanticrelations,proclaimingitwouldgivehigh

prioritytoremedyingthisshortcoming,andpromisingboldnewprograms.

Nonebroughtaboutthedramaticimprovementforwhichitaimed.Ironically,the

greatertheenergyexpended,themoretheproblemsseemedtomultiply.



Thiswasnoaccident.ThereisaperpetualnostalgiaaboutAtlanticrelations

thatharksbacktotheMarshallPlan.Then,aboldAmericanproposalelicitedan

enthusiasticandgratefulEuropeanresponse;AtlanticandEuropeaninstitutions

emergedinprofusiontospelloutagranddesign.ItwasthesecretdreamofUS

foreignpolicycometrue:Americanmoralleadershipevokingaspontaneousand

authenticconsensus;cooperationwithoutahintofcoercion;thebanishmentof

“outdated”conceptsofnationalinterestandpowerpolitics.



Intheheadyexaltationofthepostwaryears,itwasoverlookedthat

Europeanattitudeswereperhapsnotasnovelastheyappeared;theywerequite

compatiblewithahardsenseofnationalinterests.Thepracticalconsequenceof

thenewapproachwastoenableaprostrateandravagedcontinenttogain

protection,economicassistance,andtechnologywithoutanyrequirementof

reciprocity.YetforawholegenerationofAmericanleaders,thatexperience

representedtheidealpatternofinternationalrelations.Theyneverreflectedthat

whilegenerositymakeshegemonybearableitdoesnotrenderitacceptable.The

testwouldcomenotintheformativeyearsofthe“new”Atlanticrelationship,but

whenitsproclaimedgoalswerebeingreached.Then,whenEuropehadregained

itseconomicpowerandpoliticalself‐confidenceandtheEuropeancountrieswere

inapositionto insistontheirownviews,when,inotherwords,realoptions

existedforthem,wewouldknowwhetherwehadparticipatedinthebirthofa

neweraorintherefurbishingoftraditionalpatterns.



The1960susheredintheperiodoftesting.Clearly,importantnew

institutionsofAtlanticcooperationandEuropeanintegrationhademerged.

Consultationwasmoreintenseandmoregenuinethaninanyofourotherforeign

policyrelationships.Europeaneconomicintegratio nwashelpingworldtradeand

USexportsratherthanhurtingthemassomehadfeared.Europe wasproceeding

towardpoliticalunit y—ifnotalwaysalongrouteswefavored.Atthesametime,

theveryachievementofthegoalsoftheFortieswasbeginningtocontributeto

misunderstandingsandtensions.AsEuropegrewmorepowerfulitalsobecame

moreassertive;notonlydidconsultationregisteraconsensus,moreandmoreit

becameameansofarticulatingdifferencesaswell.Americanleaderswho

believedtheyhadrenderednationalismobsoleteintheAtlanticareareactedby

endowingwhatcametobecalledthe“greatdaysoftheMarshallPlan”witha

nostalgiatranscendingevenitsundoubtedsuccess. 



Butnewconstructionsininternationalrelationsbydefinitioncanbe

undertakenonlyatlongintervals;theirverysuccessprecludesearlyrepetition.

Theymay,infact,bejeopardizedbyattemptstoturnasingulartourdeforceinto

astereotype.Inevitably,aspostwarEuropetookshape,Atlanticrelationsgrew

moremundane,theproblemslessdramatic.Parado xically,Atlanticcooperation

wasmostsuccessfulwhenitconcentratedonhousekeepingfunctions;itturned

acrimoniouswhenthegoalbecame“architectural.”Itwasnodifferentwiththe

NixonAdministration.Likeitsimmediatepredecessorsitwasmostsuccessful

whenitsgoalsweremostmodest:tobuildconfidence,to stressconsultation,to

maintainadomesticconsensusbehindourEuropeantroopdeployments,toleave

EuropeanintegrationtoEuropeaninitiatives.Yetduringthatperiodwewere

accusedof“neglectingourallies.”Lateronwhenwedecidedtoaimforthe

traditional“revitalization,”wecameupagainstthedilemmaofbothour

predecessorsandoursuccessors:thatonecannotbaseforeignpolicyonan

abstractquestforpsychologicalfulfillment.



IntheearlyyearsoftheNixonAdministrationtheWesternAlliancewasin

ferment,muchofitduetoinitiativesthatwereEuropeaninorigin:Wilson’seffort

tosecureBritishentryintotheCommonMarket,Brandt’sOstpolitik,deGaulle’s

andthenPompidou’sinterestinrestoringtheAmericanconnection.Weaimed

fornogreatbreakthroughs,butwequietlyencouragedBritain’sadmissiontothe

CommonMarket.OurrolewasdecisivefortheultimatesuccessofOstp olitikand

theBerlinnegotiations.WesignificantlyimprovedcooperationwithFrance.And

wesuccessfullydefendedtheAmericantroopdeploymentinEuropeagainst

fierceCongressionaleffortstoreduceit.



IsummedupourapproachinamemorandumtothePresident.Itwas

writteninMarch1970butitisappropriatehere.Nixonhadaskedmewhether

AmericanleadershipinAtlanticaffairswasstillneed edinthelightofprogressin

Europeanintegration.Clearly,Nixonwantedreassurance.Hehadbeenraisedon

theconvictionsofthegenerationofArthurVandenbergthatgavebipartisan

supporttoourunprecedentedalliancewithEurope.Nixon’squestionwasofthe

samecategoryashisoccasionalmusingsaboutpossiblynotstandingforasecond

term.Whenheaskedabouthispoliticalfuturehewasreallyseekingconfirmation

ofhisindispensability.WithrespecttoEuropeheexpectedtohearmereaffirm

thearticleoffaithofhispoliticalapprenticeship:thatAmericanleadership

remainedcentral.



Ihadtostretchnoconvictiontorenderthisverdict;itwasthecoreofmy

ownbeliefs.Americanweightandleadershipwerestillneeded,Iargued,because

foralltheireconomicprogresstheEuropeansplainlyhadnotdevelopedthe

cohesion,theinternalstability,orthewilltomatchthepoweroftheSoviet

Union.Allianceunity,Iwrote,requiredthreethingsfromtheUnitedStates.



First,wehadtoremainsoberinourowndealingswiththeSovietUnion.If

webecametooimpetuoustheEuropeannationswouldgrowfearfulofaUS‐

Sovietdeal.Thiswouldcausethemtomultiplytheirowninitiatives,perhaps

beyondthepointofprudence,toprotectthemselvesbymakingtheirown

arrangementswiththeUSSR.Butparadoxically,thesamewouldhappenifthe

UnitedStatesstayedinthetrenchesoftheColdWar.InthatcaseEuropean

leaderswouldbetemptedtoappearbeforetheirpublicsas“mediators”between

bellicosesuperpowers.TheUnitedStateshadtoconductacarefulpolicytoward

theSovietUnion:sufficientlystrongtomaintaintheinterestinthecommon

defense;sufficientlyflexibletopreventouralliesfromracingtoMoscow.



Second,wehadtobemeticulousinconsultation.Ourallieshadtobesure

thattheirvitalinterestswouldbepro tectedinnegotiationssuchasSALT.Unless

ourownrecordwasimpeccablewecouldnotholdtheEuropeanstoahigh

standardofinteralliedconsultationinreturn.Third,wehadtoavoidunilateral

reductionsofAmericanforcesinEurope,whetherimposedbytheExecutive’s

financialstringenciesorbytheCongress’snewmoodofisolationism.Thiswasa

crucialtestofourleadership,becausesignificantreductions,whatevertheir

cause,wouldseriouslyundermineNATOandfostertendenciesofsubmissionto

theSovietUnion.



Thesewereprincipleswesoughttoimplementinourrelationswithour

Atlanticallies.Wedidnotalwayssucceed.ButthefirstfewyearsoftheNixon

Administrationwitnessedencouragingdevelopments.



<<Contents>>



****



Consultations



ruetoNixon’spromisesduringhisfirsttriptoEuropeinearly1969,we

pursuedintensiveconsultationwithalliednationsinthefollowingmonths.In

March1969NixonmetinWashingtonwithCanadianPrimeMinisterPierre

Trudeau.Canada’srelationswithNATOhavealwayshadaspecialcharacter.

UnliketheEuropeancountries,itwasnotdirectlythreatened;unliketheUnited

States,itcouldnotbedecisiveinthecommondefense;theCanadiandefense

contributionwouldbemarginalcomparedwiththatofthemajorEuropean

powersortheUnitedStates.Canada’sties,therefore,hadaboveallastrong

symboliccharacter.Itwaspreparedtomaintaintheprincipleofcollectivesecurity

bysupplyingsomemilitaryforces;atthesametimeitstronglyfavoredmeasures

fortherelaxationoftensions.

T



Canada’ssomewhataloofpositioncombinedwiththehighqualityofits

leadershipgaveitaninf luenceoutofproportiontoitsmilitarycontribution,

however.Itconductedaglobalforeignpolicy;itpart icipatedininternational

peacekeepingefforts;itmadeaconstructivecontributiontothedialogue

betweendevelopedanddevelopingnations.AtthesametimeCanadahadits

ownspecialrelationshipwiththeUnitedStates.Two‐thirdsofCanadiantradewas

withus;thedependenceofitseconomyonourswassogreatastobea signif icant

domesticissuewithinCanada.Canada,infact,wasbesetbyambivalenceswhich,

whiledifferentfromthoseofEurope,createdtheirowncomplexities.Itrequired

bothcloseeconomicrelationswiththeUnitedStatesandanoccasionalgestureof

stridentindependence. Concretely,thismeantthatitsneedforAmericanmarkets

wasinconstanttensionwithitstemptationtoimposediscriminatoryeconomic

measures;itsinstinctinfavorofcommondefenseconflictedwiththetemptation

tostayabovethebattleasa kindofinternationalarbiter.Convincedofthe

necessityofcooperation,impelledbydomesticimperativestowardconfrontation,

Canadianleadershadanarrowmarginformaneuverthattheyutilizedwith

extraordinaryskill.



ItcannotbesaidthatNixonandTrudeauwereideallysuitedforeachother.

AscionofanoldQuebecfamily,elegant,brilliant,enigmatic,intellectual,Trudeau

wasboundtoevokeallofNixon’sresentmentsagainst“swells”whoinhisview

hadalwayslookeddownonhim.HedisdainedTrudeau’sclearenjoymentof

sociallife;hetendedtoconsiderhimsoftondefenseandinhisgeneralattitude

towardtheEast.Andyet,whentheyweretogether,TrudeautreatedNixon

withoutanyhintofcondescensionandNixonaccordedTrudeaubothrespectand

attention.Theyworkedtogetherwithout visiblestrain.Theysettledtheissues

beforethemanddidnotreverttotheirlesscharitablepersonalcommentsuntil

eachwasbackinhisowncapital.



Theirfirstencounterwasnoexception.TrudeausupportedNixon’sposition

ontheantiballisticmissiledefense.ReportsthathewouldwithdrawCanadafrom

theNATOcommandprovedunfounded.Economicmatterswereturnedoverto

theexperts.Frequentconsultationswereagreedto,andinfactcarriedout.

UnitedStates‐Canadianrelationsdemonstratedthatthenationalinterestcanbe

madetotranscendpersonalsympathies.



****



AttheendofMarch1969,thedeathofPresidentEisenhowerbroughtagalaxyof

EuropeanleaderstoWashington,amongthemCharlesdeGaulle.Hearrived

wearingtheuniformofaFrenchbrigadiergeneral.NixonsentmetotheFrench

EmbassytowelcomehimandtellhimthattheWhiteHousecommunications

systemwasathisdisposal.DeGaulle,whodespitehisresidenceoffouryearsin