Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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Soonerorlatertherehadtobeareconciliationwiththemenandwomenontop

oftheescarpment.PeaceintheMiddleEastwasnotonlyaphysicalne cessitybut

aspiritualfulfillment.ItneveroccurredtomethatsomedayImightjointhe

struggleforit.



NordidIthenappreciatequitehowthefloodofwordsusedtojustifythe

variousdemandsobscuredratherthanilluminatedfundamentalpositions.Inthat

barrenregionofdesertsandstarkmountainsfromwhichthreeoftheworld’s

greatreligionshaveemerged,thereisaprofoundtemptationtowardexaltation,

magnifiedbythefactthatgeographyhassetnoboundtothehumanimagination.

Onlythededicatedcansurviveinsuchadversityoftopographyandclimate;man’s

principalsolaceisnotnaturebutfaithandthehumanrelationship.Nowhereelse

istheretobefoundsuchacollectionofleadersofsuchsharplyetched

personality;nowhereelsedotheconvictionsofindividualstatesmenplayso

pivotalarole.Manisunitedwithhisfellowsbyfaith,andthewordplaysherean

oftendecisiverole.WhetherintheIsraelis’TalmudicexegesisortheArabs’

tendencytowardepicpoetry,thelineiseasilycrossedbeyondwhatthe

pragmaticWestwouldconsiderempiricalrealityintothesphereofpassionate

rhetoricandtherealmofhumaninspiration.Woetotheunwaryoutsiderwho

takesthislinguisticexuberanceliterallyandseekstofindasolutionbyasking

adversarieswhattheyreallywant.



WhatthepartiestotheMiddleEastconflictreallywantliesdeepinan

amalgamofconvictions,resentments,anddreams.Formalpositionsarelikethe

shadowsinPlato’scave—reflectionsofatranscendentrealityalmostimpossible

toencompassinthedrylegalismsofanegotiatingprocess.



Theconflicthasnotlastedforthousandsofyears,asisoftensaid.Itisvery

muchaproductofourtwentiethcentury.ThemovementsofZionismandArab

nationalism,tobesure,werespawnedinthelate1800sbuttheywerenot

directedagainsteachother.OnlywhenthecenturiesofOttomanrulehadgiven

waytotheBritishMandate,andtheprospectofself‐determinationforPalestine

emerged,didtheArabandtheJew,afterhavingcoexistedpeacefullyfor

generations,begintheirmortalstruggleoverthepoliticalfutureofthisland.The

modernera,whichgavebirthtothiscommunalconflict,thenbestowedallits

malevolentpossibilitiesuponit.TheNaziholocaustaddedmoralurgencytothe

questforaJewishstate.Butnosoonerwasitestablis hedandblessedbythe

internationalcommunityin1948thanitwasforcedtodefenditsindependence

againstArabneighborswhodidnotseewhytheyshouldmakesacrificestoatone

forEuropeaniniquitiesinwhichtheyhadhadnopart.Israel’svictoryinthe1948‐

1949warinturnfueledthefiresofArabnationalismastraditionalregimes,

discreditedbydefeat,cameundertheswayofradicalideology—Pan‐Arabismand

socialism.ThentheregionbecamethefocalpointofColdWarrivalry,whichboth

exacerbatedlocalconflictandposedthedangerthatoutsidepowerscouldbe

draggedintomajorconfrontation.



By1969,Israelhadexistedfortwentyyearsunrecognizedbyitsneighbors,

harassedbyguerrillas,assaultedininternationalforums,andsqueezedbyArab

economicboycott.Itsveryshapeexpressedthetenuousqualityofitsstatehood;

itwasonlyninemileswideatthenarroWestpointbetweentheMediterranean

coastandtheJordanborder;themainroadbetweendividedJerusalemandTel

AvivatsomeplaceswaslocatedlessthanahundredyardsfromAraboutposts. 

Withimplacableadversariesonallitsfrontiers,Israel’sforeignpolicyhadbecome

indistinguishablefromitsdefensepolicy;itscardinalandultimateobjectivewas

whatformostothernationsisthestartingpointofforeignpolicy—acceptanceby

itsneighborsofitsrighttoexist.Itnaturallysawintheterritoriesoccupiedin

1967anassuranceofthesecuritythatithadvainlysoughtthroughoutits

existence.Itstroveforbothterritoryandrecognition,reluctanttoadmitthat

theseobjectivesmightproveincompatible.



Thisgulfinperceptions—inwhich,asinalltragedies,bothsides

representedatruth—iswhathadgiventheArab‐Israeliconflictitsbitter

intractability.Whentruthscollide,compromisebecomesthefirstcasualty.

Agreementsareachievedonlythroughevasions.Progressevaporatesasthe

partiesapproachspecifics. Thisbecameincreasinglyapparentwhenwetook

office.TheMiddleEastwasstillmiredintheaftermathoftheSixDayWar.

Positionshadhardened,diplomacywasstalemated,andhostilities were

increasing.



OnJune5,1967,Israelhadexplodedacrossitsfrontiers,climaxinga

sequenceofeventsinwhichArabrhetorichadrunawaywithArabintentions.In

May1967theSovietUnionhadwarnedEgyptthatanIsraeliattackonSyriawas

imminent.ThisSovietclaimwasfalse;whetheritwasadeliberateuntruth

designedtoprovoketensionandgainsomecheapcreditorwhetheritwasan

honestmisunderstanding,itsetinmotionafatefulprocess.PresidentGamal

AbdelNasserimpetuouslyorderedhisarmyintotheSinai,whichhadbeenin

practicedemilitarizedsince1956,andannouncedthathewasclosingtheStraitof

Tiran,whichcontrolledaccesstotheIsraeliportofEilatfromtheRedSea.He

askedUnitedNationsSecretary‐GeneralUThanttoremovetheUnitedNations

EmergencyForce,whichseparatedIsraeliandEgyptianforcesalongthe

internationalboundary.ItisdoubtfulthatNassersoughtamilitaryshowdown;it

isevenpossiblethathewasastonishedbythealacritywithwhichUThant

accededtohisrequest.Nassermayhaveintendedtodonomorethanstrikea

heroicpose.



Sometimeseventsmockingtheintentionsoftheactorsraceoutofcontrol.

OncetheEgyptianarmyreplacedtheUNforceonitsfrontier,Israelhadnochoice

buttomobilize,becauseIsrael’sterritorywastoosmalltoabsorbafirstblow.And

onceIsraelmobilized,itsdecisiontofighthadtobemadeinamatterofweeks,

foritseconomycouldnotstandtheindefinitelossofmanpowerabsorbedbythe

mobilization,anditcouldnotdemobilizewiththeEgyptianarmyonitsborders.

Butinternationaldiplomacyoperatedatitsleisurelypace.Explorationfollowed

consultationandreassurance;theworld’sstatesmendiscussedvariousformulas

toovercometheannouncedblockadeoftheStraitofTiran.Inconclusive

exchangesdriftedonuntilIsraelwipedouttheEgyptianairforceinoneblowbya

surpriseattackonthemorningofJune5.ThewarendedinsixdayswithIsrael

occupyingterritoriesinEgypt,Syria,andJordan—theSinai,theGolanHeights,

andtheWestBankoftheJorda nRiver.Thenewterritoryseizedwasthreetimes

thesizeofIsraelitself.



Arabradicalismgrewexponentiallyinthewakeofthe1967war.Thepolicy

ofEgypt,thepivotalArabcountry,andindeedofmuchoftheArabworld,wasstill

drivenbythevolatileNasser.ThegrowingpresenceofPalestinianguerrillasin

Jordanthreatenedthesurvivalofthemoderate,pro‐WesternHashemiteKing

Hussein;agitationbythesamegroupskeptLebanoneffectivelywithouta 

governmentthroughmostof1969.TheSovietUnionimplanteditselfmorefirmly

intheregionbysendingmassivemilitarysuppliestoEgypt,Iraq,andSyria;the

Arabfront‐linestates,havingcuttheirtiestotheUnitedStatesin1967,became

dependentonSovietsupport,diplomaticaswellasmaterial.Whateverthe

Soviets’formaldiplomaticposition,theirarmssupplyreinforcedtheirredentist

andintransigentstreakofArabpolicy,expressedbytheKhartoumArabSummit

oflateAugust1967intheunanimousproclamationofthe“threeno’s”—”no

peacewithIsrael,nonegotiationwithIsrael,norecognitionofIsrael.”



GraduallysomequartersintheArabworldbegantounderstandthat

intransigencewouldperpetuatecontinuedIsraelioccupationofcaptured

territories.WhileSyriaturneditsbackonnegotiations,EgyptandJordan

undertooktentativeandreluctantfeelerstowardsomeformofaccommodation.

TheydemandedIsraeliwithdrawaltothepre‐June5,1967,boundaries,but

indicatedawillingnesstoconsiderdeclarationsofnonbelliger ency,therightof

eachstatetoasecureexistence,andrecognitionofIsrael.Thoughthismarkeda

quantumadvancefromthehostilitythathadcharacterizedArabattitudesfortwo

decades,itfellfarshortofIsrael’sstatedrequirements:face‐to‐facenegotiations,

secureandrecognizedboundaries(aeuphemismforborderchanges),frontiers

opentotradeandtravel,andaguaranteeoffreenavigationthroughthe

internationalwaterways.EventhemoderateArabswouldsettlefornothingless

thantotalwithdrawalandtheyrejecteddirecttalks.(Atleastpublicly.Jordanin

factmaintainedsecretdirectcontactswithIsraelduringthatperiod.)Theradical

Arabsrefusedapeaceprocessonanybasis.



ThePalestiniancommandoorganizationAlFatahinapolicystatementof

October1968rejected“allcompromisesaimingathaltofarmedstrife,”warned

Arabgovernmentsagainstpursuingsuchacourse,anddeclareditselfinfavorofa

“free,open,non‐sectarian,non‐racistsocietyinPalestine”

—inotherwords,

abolishingthestateofIsraelaltogether.



Resolution242,aboutwhichIwastohearsomuchmore,merelypapered

overthesedifferenceswhenitwasadoptedbytheUNSecurityCouncilon

November22,1967,withtheapprovalofthetwosides.Itspokeofa“justand

lastingpeace”within“secureandrecognizedboundar ies”;itcalledforanendto

“claimsorstatesofbelligerency,”forIsraeliwithdrawal“fromterritoriesoccupied

intherecentconflict,”andforacknowledgmentofallstates’“sovereignty,

territorialintegrityandpoliticalindependence.”Butitsoonbecameapparentthat

theseambiguousphraseswereacceptabletoeachpartyonlybecauseitcould

interprettheminitsownfavor.EgyptandJordaninterpretedtheclause

“withdrawalfromterritoriesoccupied”torequirewithdrawalfromallcaptured

soil;Israeltook“secureandrecognizedboundaries”toexcludeareturnto the

linesbeforetheSixDayWar.ToIsraelwithdrawalmeantgivinguptangible

safeguardsanditdemandedaquidproquo;totheArabswithdrawalmeant

gettingbackwhatintheirviewbelongedtothem—hence,theyconsideredIsraeli

withdrawaltheirrightandnotanIsraeliconcession.



TheseclashingperspectivespermeatedtheMiddleEastdisputeand

preventedanyrealbargaining;eachsidesoughttoachieveitsprimarygoalasthe

entrancepriceintonegotiations.EgyptinsistedthatIsraeliwithdrawalshould

precedefulfillmentorevennegotiationofanyoftheotherconditions.Israel

demandedface‐to‐facetalksattheoutset,whichhadthedualadvantageof

obtainingatleastimpliedrecognitionandofminimizingthedangerofgreat‐

powerimposition.Jordan’sacquiescenceinResolution242hadbeenobtainedin

1967bythepromiseofourUnitedNationsAmbassadorArthurGoldbergthat

underitstermswewouldworkforthereturnoftheWestBanktoJordanwith

minorboundaryrectificationsandthatwewerepreparedtouseourinfluenceto

obtainaroleforJordaninJerusalem.Sincetherewerenonegotiationsgoingon,

thepromisewasmeaningless.



Resolution242instructedSecretary‐GeneralUThanttoappointaSpecial

Representativetotalktothepartiesandtrytogetnegotiationsstarted.Thant

selectedtheSwedishAmbassadortoMoscow,GunnarJarring.Toseewhetherthe

dissonantvoicesmightyieldsomecoherence,Jarringbeganhismissionby

sendingquestionnairestothepartiesaskingtheirpositions.Aftermonthsof

evasiontheyfinallytoldhim,eachinitsownconvolutedlanguage,whattheyhad

alreadydeclaredpubliclyinsimplifiedandsometimesdemagogiclanguage.When

JarringvisitedtheMiddleEasthefoundthattherealpositionsofthepartieswere

evenmoreincompatiblethantheirpublicstatements.



Therewasnolittlepathosintheemotionsunderlyingeachside’s

arguments.Israelinsistedona“bindingpeace.”Onlyacountrythathadnever

knownpeacecouldhaveattachedsomuchimportancetothatphrase.Forwhatis

abindingpeaceamongsovereignnationswhenoneoftheattributesof

sovereigntyistherighttochangeone’smind?ForthreecenturiesFranceand

Germanyhadfoughtwarsinalmosteverygeneration;eachonewasendedbya

formal“binding”peacetreatythatdidnothingtopreventthenextwar.Nordid

“openfrontiers”in1914preventtheoutbreakofaworldwarwhichshookEurope

toitsfoundations.Mostwarsinhistoryhave beenfoughtbetweencountriesthat

startedoutatpeace;itwasthespeciallunacyoftheMiddleEastthatitswars

brokeoutbetweencountriesthatweretechnicallyalreadyatwar.



Nasserinsistedonunconditionalwithdrawalfromalloccupiedt erritories—

butheneverexplainedwhatincentiveIsraelhadforwithdrawalinthefaceofhis

ambiguousoffersofnonbelligerency.Nordidheciteapriorexampleofapeace

settlementbasedsolelyontheunconditionalwithdrawalofthevictorfromthe

territoryithadconquered.ButforNasser,theprospectofrecognizing Israelwas

suchapersonaltraumathathismerementionofthephraseseemedtohimto

removeallnecessityforgivingitconcretemeaning.



Inotherregionsoftheworldthesecircumstancesmighthaveproduceda

stalematebrokenfro mtimetotimebya seriesofwarsuntilexhaustionproduced

theequilibriumthatwisdomhadbeenunabletodefine.ButtheMiddleEast,in

thesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,wasatthevortexofglobalpolitics.

ThoughinthelateSixtiesoilwasnotyetperceivedasascarcecommodity,the

importanceoftheMiddleEast—atthecrossroadsofcontinentsandcivilizations—

wasunderstoodonlytooclearly.TheSovietUnion,whichinthelateFortieshad

writtenofftheMiddleEastasbeyonditscapacitytoinfluence,

hadleapedinten

yearslaterbyasaleofarmsandtwentyyearslaterbythedispatchofthousands

ofmilitaryadviserstoEgypt.TheSovietpresenceconstitutedamajorgeopolitical

changesinceWorldWarII.Forfifteenyearsithelpedexacerbatetheconflict.As

timewentontheSovietsactedwithincreasingboldness.In1956,theymeddled

marginallyinSuezcrisisdiplomacyandmadevaguethreatsofmilitary

involvementafterourpressureonBritainandFrancehadmadeitsafetodoso.

After1967thenumberofSovietmilitaryadvisersintheMiddleEastincreased

fivefold.ThroughtheSixtiesSovietinfluencegrewdramaticallyinEgypt,Syria,

Iraq,Algeria,Sudan,andinlateryears,Libya.The1967war,whichtheyhelpedto

provoke,enabledtheSovietsforthefirsttimeinhistorytoestablishapermanent

fleetofsomefiftywarshipsintheMediterraneanSea.



Therolesofoutsidepowerswerealmostascomplexasthoseofthe

principalactors.TheSovietUnionactedasadvocateoftheArabcause;it

espousedArabproposalsandofferednohintofpossiblecompromise.TheWest

Europeancountriesweretornbetweentheirimpotenceandtheirpremonitionof

theeconomicdangersofanotherconflict.Themostactive,deGaulle’sFrance,in

effectembracedtheArabpositionaftertheSixDayWar.AsfortheUnitedStates,

PresidentJohnsoninaspeechonJune19,1967,soughttonavigatethereefsof

controversybyavoidinganyprecision;inhisdiscussionofborders,recognition,

andmaritimerightsheforeshadowedwhatlaterbecamethemysticalambiguities

ofResolution242.Egypt,togetherwithotherArabstates,hadbrokendiplomatic

relationswiththeUnitedStatesintheaftermathofthe1967war.Wewerethus

withoutseniordiplomatsinthecapitalsofthekeyArabcountries,which

neverthelessdemandedourhelpinthenegotiatingprocess.Nasserinsistedthat

wepressureIsraelinhisbehalf,holdingoutinreturntheprospectofrestoring

diplomaticrelationswithus.Whyweshouldpayapricefortherestorationof

relationswhichhehadcutoffunderatotallyfalsepretextwasnevermadeclear.

[

NasserhadaccusedtheUnitedStatesofdirectmilitaryparticipationonIsrael’ssideinthe

1967war.PresidentJohnsoninsistedthatNasserrecantthischargebeforediplomaticrelations

couldberesumed.Nasserdidsothroughthepress,butJohnsoninsistedthatNassermakethe

gesturedirectlytotheUnitedStates.]Wehadallthelessincentivetodosoaslongas

hispolicycontinued torelyonSovietsupportandcateredtoradicalpassions

throughouttheArabworld.



Ihadalwaysbelieveditessentialto reducethescopeofSovietadventurist

policiesintheMiddleEast.ForthatreasontheUnitedStatesperformanceinthe

Suezcrisisof1956hadstruckmeasdeplorable.Weshouldhaveunderstoodthat

oursuddenwithdrawaloffinancialsupportforEgypt’sAswanHighDamwouldbe

thebeginning,nottheend,ofacrisis.Andthecrisiswhenitoccurredwasinmy

viewmishandled.Whateverone’sviewofthewisdomoftheBritishandFrench

militaryaction,Iwasconvincedthatwewouldpayheavilyintheyearsaheadfor

ourshortsightedplayingtothegallery.Ididnotthinkthatmanhandlingour

closestallieswouldachievethelastinggratitudeofNasserorthosewhoadmired

him;onthecontrary,hewouldprobablybeconfirmedinacoursefundamentally

inimicaltoWesterninterests. ThemoderateregimesbuttressedbyBritishpower

andprestige,especiallyinIraq,werelikelytobeweakenedifnotdoomedbywhat

theycouldonlyseeasoursidingwiththeradicalelementsexemplifiedbyNasser.

BritainandFrance,theirself‐confidenceandsenseofglobalrelevanceshattered,

wouldhastentoshedtheirremaininginternationalresponsibilities.Therealities

ofpowerwouldthenimpelustofilltheresultingvacuumintheMiddleEastand

EastofSuezandsotakeonourownshouldersallthemoralonusofdifficult

geopoliticaldecisions.



WhenIreachedhighoffice,however,myabilitytoimplementmyviewson

MiddleEastpolicydifferedfrommypositiononotherissues.Onothertopics

NixonwouldlistentotheagenciesforawhileandthenactfromtheWhiteHouse;

thusmyofficeassumedconstantlygrowingresponsibilities.ButintheMiddleEast

thePresidentmadeadistinctionbetweenmyplanningandmyoperational

functions.Iwasallowedtoplan,towarn,todelay;Icouldforcedeliberationsinto

theNSCframework—butuntiltheendof1971Iwasnotpermittedtoconduct

diplomacyexceptinrareperiodsofacutecrisissuchastheSyrianinvasionof

JordaninSeptember1970.



Thetwomainreasonsforthis,inmyview,wereNixon’sambivalent

relationshipwithSecretaryofStateRogersandhisassessmentofthedomestic

liabilitiesofanactiveMiddleEastpolicy.BecauseNixon’sdistrustoftheState

DepartmentthrustmeforwardandinevitablyembarrassedandfrustratedRogers,

Nixonconstantlysoughtmeanstocomforthisoldfriend.Onewastoreserve

someareaofforeignpolicyforRogers’spredominantinfluence.ButwhatNixon

gavewithonehandhetendedtotakeawaywiththeother.Theareashedidnot

mindconsigningwerethosewheresuccessseemedelusive,suchasAfrica,or

thosewheretherisksofdomesticreactionwerehigh.TheMiddleEastmetboth

ofNixon’scriteria.Hecalculatedthatalmostanyactivepolicywouldfail;in

addition,itwouldalmostcertainlyincurthewrathofIsrael’ssupporters.Sohe

founditusefulto gettheWhiteHouseasmuchoutofthedirectlineoffireas

possible.



HealsosuspectedthatmyJewishoriginmightcausemetoleantoomuch

towardIsrael.And,likeotherPresidents,hewasnotabovefe edingtherivalry

inherent(despitetheritua listicprotestationstothecontrary)betweentheoffices

ofSecretaryofStateandsecurityadviserinordertoenhancehisowncontrol.



Therewasafurtherpersonalityreasonfortherelativelymoreactiveroleof

theStateDepartmentintheMiddleEast,anditlayinthecharacterofthe

AssistantSecretarywhowasappointedtoheaditsbureauofNearEasternand

SouthAsianAffairs.Intense,gregarious,occasionallyfrenetic,JosephSiscowas

notaconventionalForeignServiceOfficer.Hehadneverservedoverseas;only

theinsistenceofDeanRuskhadearnedhimpromotiontothehighestrankofthe

service,whichselectionboardsapplyingmoreconventionalcriteria consistently

deniedhim.Oncethere,heturnedouttobealivingproofofwhatimaginative

leadershipcouldachieveintheStateDepartmentevenunderaPreside nt

determinedtoconducthisownforeignpolicy.Enormouslyinventive,withatalent

forthestratagemsthatarethelifebloodofMiddleEastdiplomacy,sometimes

offeringmoresolutionsthantherewereproblems,JoeSiscoseizedthe

bureaucraticinitiativeandneversurrenderedit.Hewasadroitinthewaysof

Washingtonandquicklyestablishedapersonalrelationshipwithme,perceiving

thatintheNixonAdministrationPresidentialauthoritywouldbetheultimate

arbiter.Intheend,heprobablyspentasmuchtimemediatingbetweenRogers

andmeasbetweentheArabsandIsraelis.Muchoftheinformationthatthe

WhiteHousewasgivenabouttheday‐to‐daycourseoftheStateDepartment’s

MiddleEastinitiativescamefromSiscotomeortoHalSaunders,myseniorstaff

assistantontheMiddleEast.Joemanagedtoremainloyaltobothhisbosses,

RogersandthePresident,andservedbothwell.AfterIbecameSecretaryofState

ImadehimUnderSecretaryofStateforPoliticalAffairs,thehighestcareer

policymakingpositionintheDepartment.Inthatcapacityhebecamean

indispensablecollaboratorandaclosefriend.



<<Contents>>

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****



InitiativesGalore



henanewAdministrationcomestoofficeitistakenforgrantedthatitwill

“tackle”theimportantworldproblems;newPresidentsalwayschidetheir

predecessorsforleavingissues notyetconclusively“solved.”Itisdifficultforany

Americanleadertoacceptthefactthatinsomeconflictsopposingpositionsare

simplyirreconcilable.Indeed,whenrea dinessto compromisedoesnotexist,

forcingtheissueprematurelywillmagnifyinsecurityandinstability;eventsthat

shouldbesloweddownmaybeaccelerated;pressuresaregeneratedthatcannot

becontrolled.EverynewAdministrationmustlearn—oftenthehardway—that

oneofthemostdifficult responsibilitiesofpolicymakingisthepatiencetopick

therightmomentfordecisiveaction.



Manytemptationsto“dosomething”awaitedthenewAdministration

whenittookoffice.InearlyFebruary1969Israelisourcesreportedthat1,288

incidentsofsabotageandterrorismhadtakenplaceintheyearandahalffrom

theSixDayWartotheendof1968:920incidentsontheJordanianfront,166on

theEgyptianborder,37onthecease‐firelinewithSyria,35ontheLebanese

border,and130inGaza.Israelilossesforthesameperiodwerereportedas234

deadand765woundedamongmilitarypersonneland47deadand330wounded

amongcivilians—astaggeringtotalforacountrywithapopulationof2.5million,

equivalenttoover20,000deadand100,000woundedforanationthesizeof

America.IsraelretaliatedbyairattacksonsuspectedguerrillabasesinJordan;it

stagedamajorattackagainsttheBeirutinternationalairportonDecember28,

1968;andartilleryduelsacrosstheSuezCanalwerearegularoccurrence.



TherewasnoshortageofinvitationsforAmericandiplomaticinvolvement.

TwoinparticularwereawaitingthenewAdministration:OnDecember30the

SovietshadsuggestedapeaceplantoimplementResolution242;itreflectedthe

ArabdemandfortotalIsraeliwithdrawalandadefinitionofpeacesominimalas

tobeanobviousnonstarter.OnJanuary16,1969,FranceproposedFour‐Power

consultationsontheMiddleEast—amongtheUnitedStates,theSovietUnion,

Britain,andFrance.



AtourNSCmeetingonFebruary1wehadto decidehowtorespondto

theseinitiativesandbasicallywhethertodepartfromthelow‐profilepolicythat

hadcharacterizedtheJohnsonyears.ItrapidlybecameclearthattheState

DepartmentwaseagertolaunchanAmericaninitiative.Whatobjectiveor

strategythisinvolvementshouldservewouldbelefttoemergeinnegotiation.

Statebelievedthatitwasourresponsibilitytohelpbridgethegapbetweenthe

partiesandpointthemtowardcompromiseunderJarring.Moreover,sincethe

fightingwasintensifying,sotheargumentran,wecouldnotaffordtoappear

indifferent.AllthepartiesintheareaprofessedtobelievethattheUnitedStates

heldthekeytoasettlement;hence,theDepartmentargued,weshouldindee d

involveourselvesactively.Itwashopedthatcommongroundcouldprobablybe

achievedamongthepartiesaswellasamongtheoutsidepowersbythesheer

momentumofthenegotiatingprocess.AsfortheSovietproblem,the

Departmentconte ndedthatsinceMoscowseemedtogainbyexploitingthe

tensionsofthearea,apeacesettlementwasboundtofrustrateitsstrategy.Ata

minimumsuchacoursewouldtestSovietintentions.



ThenewPresidentwasabouttoundergohisfirstexperienceofthe

bureaucraticsteamroller.Itisthenatureofabureaucracytomovebyalmost

imperceptiblestagestowardagoalitmayitselfonlydimlyperceive.Thefirst

moveisusuallytoaskthePresidentortheSecretaryofStateforauthorityto