Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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themethodsthathadalreadybroughthimsofar.Onauthenticinternational

issues,Nixonwassensitivetonuanceandcomfortablewithtacticsofconciliation

andcompromise.Inpoliticalbattleshewasagutfighter;heturnedwithout

hesitationtousesofPresident ialpowerthatheneverceasedbelieving—with

muchevidence—hadbeenthoseofhispredecessorsaswell.



Suchtacticswereinappropr iateforournationalanguish.Bridgesneeded

buildingandtheChiefExecutiveofthecountry,theonlynationallyelected

official,shouldhavetakenthefirststep.YetthisissomethingNixonjustdidnot

knowhowtodo.Hewastooinsecureand,inastrangeway,toovulnerable.In

factheshowedtheprotesterstherespectinpract iceforwhichhenevercould

findthewords—byacceptingtheirpeaceprogram.Perhapsitwaspreciselythe

ironythattheirprogramwasbeingcarriedoutbythemanwhohadbeen

anathematothemfortwodecadesthatsoembitteredsomeofhiscritics.



ThereisnoquestionthatgenerosityofspiritwasnotoneofNixon’svirtues;

hecouldnevertranscendhisresentmentsandhiscomplexes.Butneitherdidhe

everreceivefromhiscriticscompassionforthetaskhispredecessorshad

bequeathedtohim.Therewasaself‐fulfillingobtusenessinthebitternesswith

whichthetwosidesregardedeachother:Nixon’sbeliefintheliberalconspiracy,

thecritics’viewthattheNixonAdministrationwasdeterminedtopursuethewar

foritsownsake.Bothwerewrong.Intheprocess,eachstalematedtheother

whiledemeaningitself.



IagreedwiththePresident’sVietnampolicy;Ihaddesignedmuchofit.IfI

hadanycriticism,itwasthatheprocrast inatedinfacingthepainfulchoices

beforehim.ButIthought thatAmerica’sdomesticproblemswentmuchdeeper

thanacontestforpoliticalpowerwagedinthenameofaquarreloverpeace

termsforVietnam.Atonebackgroundbriefingin1970Ipointedoutthat

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Ifyouwouldlookaroundtheworld,youwillhavetocometotheconclusionthatthe

turmoilisnotcausedprimarily,oratleastexclusively,bythecausesthatareascribedtoit.

TherearestudentriotsinBerlin,wherethestudentsparticipatein[university]government,and

therearestudentriotsinPariswheretheydon’tparticipateinit.Therearestudentriotsin

Oxford,whichhasatutorialsystem,andtherearestudentriotsinRome,wheretherearehuge

lectures.ThereareriotsinthiscountrybecauseofVietnam,raceandslums,allegedly,and

thereareriotsinHollandwhichhasnoVietnam,noraceproblemandnoslums.Inotherwords,

wearedealingwithaproblemofcontemporarysociety,ofhowtogivemeaningtolifefora

generation,forayoungergenerationinstatesthatarebecomingincreasinglybureaucraticand

technological.



Forthesereasons,myattitudetowardtheprotestersdivergedfrom

Nixon’s.Hesawinthemanenemythathadtobevanquished;Iconsideredthem

studentsandcolleagueswithwhomIdifferedbutwhoseidealismwas

indispensableforourfuture;Isoughttobuildbridgestothem.Iunderstoodthe

anguishofthenonradicalmembersoftheprotestmovement;humanlyIwas

closetomanyofthem.Whileconvincedthattheirpoliciesweredeeplywrong

andtheirsingle‐mindedself‐righteousnessprofoundlydangerousforourworld

positionanddomestictranquillity,Iattemptedtomaintainaseriousdialogue

betweentheAdministrationanditscritics.InNovember1969Nixonaskedmeto

commentonamemorandum senttohimbyPatMoynihan,thenCounsellorto

thePresident.ItdescribedasceneataHarvard‐Princetonfootballgameinwhich

theassembledgraduates—worth,accordingtoPat,atleast$10billion—roared

supportwhentheHarvardUniversitybandwasintroduced,inatakeoffon

Agnew’sdenigratingphrase,asthe“effeteHarvardCorpsofIntellectualSnobs.”

PatwarnedthatwhileNixonwasrightinresistingattemptstomakepolicyinthe

streets,heshouldnotneedlesslychallengetheyoung—becauseoftheirgreat

influenceontheirparents.Nixonhadmademarginalcommentsthatindicatedhis

ownskepticismabouthisabilitytowinover“Harvardtypes”;moreover,hewas

convincedthathispolitical andfinancialsupportcamefromtheSouth,the

MidWest,andCalifornia,whichwereimpervioustotheshoutsofaHarvard

crowd.Nevertheless,awarninginMoynihan’smemorandumaboutthe

“incrediblepowersofderision”oftheyoungwassignificantlyunderlinedbythe

President.IputsomethoughtintomyresponseofNovember15,1969.Itappears

hereinmajorextracts:



WhoareThey?

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Theyareaverymixedgroup—insocialorigin,inpoliticaloutlook,inpotentialforhelpor

harm.OftheyoungMoratoriummarchers,somewerecertainlytheoffspringoftheaffluent,

andthereforetheirpoliticsareasharpdeparturefromtheirparents.Yetmanyhavefathers

whoattendedcollegeundertheGIBillinthelate‘40sandwhowentontovoteforStevenson.

Alotofthemarcherswereundoubtedlythefirstgenerationtoreachcollegefrom

predominantlyDemocraticurbanstrata.AndifTomWickerisspeakingforhimselfandhis

colleaguesinclaimingthat“thoseareourchildren”downthereinthestreets,thesearealso

theoffspringofsometraditionallyDemocraticprofessionalelements…



WhyDoTheyMarch?



Theirmotivesarealsoquitevaried.Inthebroadersense,mostarecasualtiesofour

affluence.Theyhavehadtheleisureforself‐pity,andtheeducationenablingthemtofocusitin

afashionablecritiqueofthe“system.”Butthepsychologicaloriginsareprobablyirrelevant.

Confusion,outrage,orevangelismhaveabsorbedyouthfulenergiesineverygeneration.The

groupPattalksaboutisspecialinthesheerbreadthofitspoliticalconsciousnessandactivism.

Itisdrawn,afterall,fromthelargestnumberofeducatedyoungpeopleinhistory.



Andtothedegreethattheyarepoliticallyconscious,manyaresubstantiallyanti‐

establishmentsimplybecausethatisnotonlythenaturalbentofyouthfulalienation,butalso

becauseitisamajorthrustofcontemporaryacademicliterature.ModernAmericansociology,

psychology,politicalscience,etc.,haveturnedaglaringlight(astheyshouldhave)onthefaults

inoursociety.Sotooissomeofourbestmodernliteraturepowerfulsocialcriticism.Allthisis

boundtofallonfertileground—andcovermoreofitthaneverbefore—inacountrythatsends

8millionkidstocollege.



Thepracticalresultisverymixed.



Asmallminoritytakesrefuge(asitalwayshas)inmindlessradicalism.



ButIbelievethattheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheseyoungpeopleacrossthecountry

remainremarkablyopenintermsoftheirfuturepoliticalaffiliation.Manyarebrightand

thoughtful.Theyarecommittedtorightwrongsandfindthemselves.Theyareeagerto

participate,impatientfortangibleresults.Theyarewaryofeveryanswer—readytosuspect

thatargumentsforgradual(realistic)progress(frompeaceinVietnamtodesegregation)mask

somesinisterconspiracyagainstthegoal.



TheirPoliticalImpact



…Theybecomeformidablebyaddingtotheirownvotesanenormousoutburstof

politicalactivism,boundtohaveaninfluenceonothersaswellasontheirparents.Wehave

ampleproofofthisintheMcCarthyphenomenon.



Vietnamisonlysymptomatic.Whenthatissueisgone,anotherwilltakeitsplace.For

theyarefightingtheestablishmentpositionasmuchasagivenproblem.



WhatCanYouDo?



IagreewithMoynihanthatattackingthisgrouphead‐oniscounterproductive.Thisis

nottosaythatyoushouldbesoftonthemilitants.Thereisastrongneedhereforfirm

leadership,bothinpsychologicalandpoliticalterms…



Therearestrongargumentsforsimplyneutralizingthispotentialforcebyavoidinga

collision.Thisbynomeansrequiresappeasement.ItdoesmeanthattheAdministrationbe

seentotakeseriouslytheresponsiblemajorityoftheseyoungpeople.Theposturewouldbe

thattheymaybewrongonthemeritsoftheargument,butyoudonotdoubttheauthenticity

andsincerityoftheirconcerns.



CanyouGainAnything?



Beyondthisneutralization,therejustmightbeachance,overtime,towinsomeof

theseyoungpeopletoyourside.TheoldDemocratic‐Republicanquarrelsofthe‘40sand‘50s

donotencumberthisgenerationofyoungAmericans.



Youhavesomethingbasicincommonwithmanyofthem—aconvictionthatthe

machineryofNewDealliberalismhastobefundamentallyoverhauled.Youalsosharea

concernthatAmericaplayamorebalancedandrestrainedroleintheworld.Youare,infact,

turningovermostoftherocksathomeandabroadthatthesekidswanttoseeturnedover.



Withaconcertedandsensitiveefforttogetacrossthefreshapproachofyour

Administration,youmaywellgainsomeconvertsamongthosewhonowseemirretrievable.



WhetherNixoninfactheldalltheviewsIascribedtohimorwhether—like

agoodcourtier—Isoughttoinfluencehisbehaviorbygivinghimareputationto

uphold,Idevotedagreatdealoftimeandefforttomeetingantiwargroups.

Haldemanopposedmyseeingsuchgroupsasatbestawasteofmytimeandat

worstappearingtogivemoralsupporttoimplacableopponents.Ialsogave

backgroundbriefingstothepresseverytimetherewasaPresidentialspeechon

VietnamandItraveledaroundthecountrywiththePresidentin1970talkingto

groupsofeditors,publishers,andbroadcasters.Mythemewasconstant,thatthe

warhadtobeendedasanactofpolicy,notinresponsetodemonst rations.Ata

meetingwithagroupofbusinessleade rsinOctober1969Iarguedthat

“capitulationwouldnotterminatethede monstrationphenomenon.If

confrontationinthestreetsistosucceedonthisissue,itcoulddrasticallyalter

thestyleofAmericanpolitics.Someoftheleadersarethesamepeoplewho

riotedinChicagofordemandswhichhavelongsincebeenme t. Thetrueissueis

theauthorityofthe,Presidency—notanyparticularPresident.”



TheparadoxwasthattheAdministrationanditscriticscouldfrustrateeach

otherbutbydoingsoneithercouldachievewhatbothyearnedfor:anearly

negotiatedendtothewarinVietnam. AllthistimeHanoistoodatthesidelines,

coldlyobservinghowAmericawasnegotiatingnotwithitsadversarybutwith

itself.

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<<Contents>>

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GropingforaStrategy

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ewereonaroadoutofVietnam,attemptingtopursueamiddlecourse

betweencapitulationandtheseeminglyendlessstalematethatwehad

inherited.Whet herwecouldsucceedwoulddependonourabilityto mesha

complicatedseriesofdiplomatic,military,andpolitical moveswhileconfronted

byanimplacable,impatientpublicprotest.

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Nixonsoughttogainascendancyoverourdomesticsituationbyvarious

movesoverandaboveournegotiatingpostureandde‐escala tion.OnSeptember

19,NixonandLaird—whohadalreadyaskedCongressfora draftlottery—

announcedataWhiteHousebriefingthatthewithdrawalsof60,000menfrom

VietnamenabledustocanceldraftcallsforNovemberandDecember.Calls

scheduledforOctobe rwouldbestretchedoutoverthefinalquarteroftheyear.

TheDepartmentofDefensebeganlimitinginductiontonineteen‐year‐olds;on

November26,thePresidentsignedintolawthebillpermittingadraftlottery.



AcampaignonbehalfofAmericanprisonersofwarinVietnamwas

launchedinAugustbydema ndingNorthVietnamesecompliancewiththeGeneva

ConventionandRedCrossinspection.ThiswasfollowedbyforcefulAmerican

statementsattheParispeacetalksandattheInternationalConferenceoftheRed

CrossinSeptember1969.FortySenatorssignedastatementcondemningNorth

VietnamesebrutalityagainstAmericanPOWsonAugust13;twohundred

Representativessignedasimilarstateme ntinSeptember.TheJohnson

Administration,fearingreprisals,hadbeenreluctanttopresstheissue.TheNixon

Administration’sapproachprovedtohaveabeneficialeffectonthetreatmentof

USprisonersofwar. Attheoutsetitralliedsupportathome,thoughinlateryears

itwasturnedagainstus,astheprisonersbecameanaddedargumentfor

unilateralwithdrawalanddismantlingoftheSouthVietnamesegovernment.

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But,asalways,Nixontriedtoplayforallthemarbles;andaswasnot

infrequentlythecase,hebeganitwithamaneuverthatappearedportentous

thoughitreflectednodefinitiveplan.Inshort,hewasbluffing.Ihavealready

mentionedthatinanumberofhistalkswithforeignleade rsoveraperiodof

monthsinlate1969,Nixonhadcreatedtheimpressionthattheanniversaryofthe

bombinghaltonNovember1wasakindofdeadline.Onhisworldtriphedropped

lessthansubtlehintsthathispatiencewasrunningoutandthatifnoprogress

hadbeenmadeinParisbyNovember1,hewouldtakestrongaction.SofarasI

couldtell,Nixonhadonlythevaguestideaofwhathehadinmind.(Therewas

certainlynopriorstaffplanning;DuckHookdevelopedasanimplementationofa

threatthathadalreadybeenmade.)ThefirstIheardofthedeadlinewaswhen

NixonutteredittoYahyaKhaninAugust1969.AndbecauseNixonnever

permittedStateDepartmentpersonnel(andonlyrarelytheSecretaryofState)to

sitinonhismeetingswithforeignleaders,nooneelseinourgovernmenteven

knewthatathreathadbeenmade.



ThoughNixonkeptreferringtothedeadline,atthesametimehemade

movesthattendedtovitiatehisthreats,suchasannouncingfurthertroop

withdrawals.InlateSeptemberheconfidedtomethathecontemplatedmaking

“thetoughmove”beforeOctober15sothatitwouldnotappearpromptedbythe

Moratoriumdemonstrations.Iadvisedagainstit,becausetopreempthisown

deadlinemightconfuseouradversaries.Heneverpursuedthethreatactively;it

wasperhapsawaytoconvincehimself—andperhapsthehistoricalrecord—that

hewasthetoughleaderthwa rtedbyweakercolleagues.

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OnSeptember27,Dobrynincalledonmetofishforaninvitationfor

ForeignMinisterAndreiGromykotomeetwiththePresidentwhenvisitingtheUS

fortheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.Duringourconversation,Nixon—by

prearrangement—calledmyo fficeandaskedmetotellDobryninthatVietnam

wasthecriticalissueinUS‐Sovietrelations,that“thetrainhadleftthestation

andwasheadingdownthetrack”(afavoriteNixonphrase,used,forexample,

aftertheOregonprimaryin1968toencouragewaveringconventiondelegates).I

repeatedNixon’sobservationsandaddedthatthenextmovewasuptoHanoi.

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OnOctober6,NixonmetwithRogersandprohibitedanynewdiplomatic

initiativeonVietnamuntilHanoirespondedinsomeway;forthefirsttimehe

mentionedhisdeadlineofNovember1.Rogerstookthethreatseriouslybecause,

ashetoldmeonOctober8,hewasconvincedthePresidentwouldinfactmake

somemoveonNovember1,thoughhewasevidentlynoclearerthanIjustwhatit

was.OnOctober8,Isuggestedto Nixonthatheannounceareporttothepeople

foraroundNovember1.Thiswouldhavetheadvantageofmaintainingand

perhapsheighteningthesenseofdeadlineinHanoiandMoscow,forwhatever

benefitthismightbringinunexpectedNorthVietnameseconcessions.On

October13,theWhiteHouseannouncedthatthePresidentwouldbegivinga

majorspeechtoreviewVietnampolicyonNovember3.(Thedatewaschosen

becauseNovember2wouldbethedayoftheNewJerseygubernatorialelection,

andNixondidnotwishtotriggeralargeturnoutofprotestvotesagainstthe

Republicancandidate—who,intheevent,becamethefirstRepublicanGovernor

ofNewJerseyinsixteenyears.)ToannounceaPresidentialspeechsofarahead

wasadaringdecision,becauseitcompoundeduncertaintyandencouraged

pressurestoswaywhateverdecisionhemightbeannouncing.

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Intheinterval,NixonsoughttoelicitSovietsupport.OnOctober20,hemet

withDobrynin,whohadjustreturnedfromoneofhisfrequentconsultationsin

Moscow.Nixonpointedoutthatthebombinghaltwasayearold;ifnoprogress

occurredsoon,theUnitedStateswouldhavetopursueitsownmethodsfor

bringingthewartoanend.Ontheotherhand,iftheSovietUnioncooperatedin

bringingthewartoanhonorableconclusion,wewould“do somethingdramatic”

toimproveUS‐Sovietrelations.DobryninwasnotpreparedwithanyNorth

VietnameseoffersbuthedidputforthasortofSovietconcession.Aftermonths

ofsparringwehadindicatedtotheSovietsinJunethatwewerepreparedto

beginstrategicarmstalksimmediately.Characteristically,eventhoughtheSoviets

hadprofessedtheireagernessfortalksformonths,oncewewerecommittedthey

evadedareply.OnOctober20DobrynininformedusthattheSovietUnionwould

bepreparedtostartthetalksbymid‐November.



Itwasashrewdmove.Awareoftheeagernessofmuchofourgovernment

tobeginSALTnegotiations,theKremlincorrectlyjudgedthatNixoncouldnot

possiblyrefuse.Intheresultingclimateofhope,anyescalationinVietnamwould

appearashazardingprospectsforamajorrelaxationoftensions;thisinhibition

wouldthusbeaddedtothedomesticpressuresdramatizedbytheMoratorium

justafewdaysearlier.TheSoviets,inshort,applied reverselinkagetous.Their

calculationprovedtobecorrect.DespiteWhiteHouseeffortstoholdupareply

onSALTuntilaftertheNovember3speech,Rogersinsistedonannouncingour

acceptanceonOctober25.Nixonreluct antlyagreedbecaus ehewasafraidthat

otherwisehewouldfaceaweekofleaks.



AswashishabitNixonsoughttocompensateforhisunwillingnesstoface

downhisoldfriendbyescalatingthemenacetotheSoviets.Heimmediatelytold

methatIshouldconveytoDobryninthatthePresidentwas“outofcontrol”on

Vietnam.InservingNixononeowedittohimtodiscriminateamongtheordershe

issuedandtogivehimanotherchanceatthosethatwereunfulfillableor

dangerous.Thisonewasinthelattercategory.IknewthatNixonwasplanningto

takenoactiononNovember1.Toutteradirethreatfollowedbynoaction

whateverwoulddepreciateourcurrency.SoIwaitedtoseewhetherNixonwould

returntothetheme.Hedidnot.



MeanwhileNixonisolatedhimselfatCampDavidto workonhisNovember

3speech.Itscorewasprovidedbymystaffandme,butNixonwrotethe

beginningandtheendononeofhisubiquitousyellowpadsandaddedrhetorical

flourishesthroughout.ItprovedoneofNixon’sstrongestpublicperformances.

AgainsttherecommendationsofallofhisCabinethedrewthelineandmadeno

concessionstotheprotesters.Iagreedwithhiscourse.Hetookhiscasetothe

people,therebytogainthemaneuveringroomheneededforwhatheconsidered

“peacewithhonor.”Thespeechhadashockeffectsinceitdefiedtheprotesters,

theNorthVietnamese,andallexpectationsbyannouncingnospectacularshiftin

ournegotiatingpositionandnotroopwithdrawals.Itappealedtothe“greatsilent

majority”ofAmericansto supporttheirCommander‐in‐Chief.Forthefirsttimein

aPresidentialstatementitspelledoutclearlywhatthePresidentmeantwhenhe

saidhehad“aplantoendthewar”—namely,thedual ‐trackstrategyof

Vietnamizationandnegotiations.AnditmadethepointthatVietnamization

offeredaprospectofhonorabledisengagementthatwasnothostagetotheother

side’scooperation.



IhadadvisedthePresidentnottodefendtheoriginalcommitmentof

troopstoVietnam,whichhehadinherited,buttopresentonlyhisstrategyfor

gettingout.Hedisagreed,tellingme—Inowbelievewisely—thattheAmerican

publicwouldnotacceptsacrificeforawarthathadnovalidpurpose.Thespeech,

despiteitsstrongtone,did,moreover,marksomesubtlechangesinour

negotiatingposition.WheretheMay14speechhadproposedwithdrawalof“the

majorportions”ofourforceswithinoneyear,withresidualforcesleftforpolicing 

theagreement,theNovember3speechacceptedatotalAmericanpulloutina

yearincaseofanagreedmutualwithdrawal,thusbringingourpublicposition

intolinewithourprivateonewithXuanThuy.TheMay14speechspok eof

“supervisedcease‐fires,”toincludethepossibilityoflocalarrangementsaswellas

generalones;theNovember3speechspokeof“cease‐fire”inthesingular.I

explainedinabackgrounderthatwewouldbeflexible;wewouldbewillingto

negotiateeitherlocalorgeneralarrangementsforcessationofhostilities.

However,asNixondeclared,theissuewasnotamatterofdetailbutofbasic

principle:“Hanoihasrefusedeventodiscussourproposals.Theydemandour

unconditionalacceptanceoftheirterms,whicharethatwewithdrawallAmerican

forcesimmediatelyandunconditionallyandthatweoverthrowtheGovernment

ofSouthVietnamasweleave.”



NixonlistedthestepstakentowithdrawUStroops,reduceairoperations,

andstepupSouthVietnamesetraining.HeemphasizedthatVietnamization

envisaged“thecompletewithdrawalofallUScombatgroundforcesandtheir

replacementbySouthVietnameseforcesonanorderlyscheduledtimetable.”AsI

hadsuggested,NixondisclosedthesecretcorrespondencewithNorthVietnam

priortoInauguration,therepeateddiscussionswiththeSovietUniontopromote

negotiations,andthesecretlettersexchangedwithHoChiMinhinJulyand

August,thetextsofwhichwerereleasedbytheWhiteHouse.Hedidnotreveal

mysecretmeetingwithXuanThuy.Butheexplainedcandidlythat“noprogress

whateverhadbeenmadeexceptagreementontheshapeofthebargainingtable



Andhestatedthefundamentalissue:



InSanFranciscoafewweeksagoIsawdemonstratorscarryingsignsreading:“Losein

Vietnam,bringtheboyshome.”



Well,oneofthestrengthsofourfreesocietyisthatanyAmericanhasarighttoreach

thatconclusionandtoadvocatethatpointofview.ButasPresidentoftheUnitedStates,I

wouldbeuntruetomyoathofofficeifIallowedthepolicyofthisNationtobedictatedbythe

minoritywhoholdthatpointofviewandwhotrytoimposeitontheNationbymounting

demonstrationsinthestreet.



Foralmost200years,thepolicyofthisnationhasbeenmadeunderourConstitutionby

thoseleadersintheCongressandintheWhiteHouseelectedbyallofthepeople.Ifavocal

minority,howeverferventitscause,prevailsoverreasonandthewillofthemajority,this

Nationhasnofutureasafreesociety…



Theresponsetothespeechwaselectric.Fromtheminuteitended,the

WhiteHouseswitchboardwascloggedwithcongratulatoryphonecalls.Tensof

thousandsofsupportivetelegramsarrivedwhichrapidlyoverwhelmedthe

generalcriticaleditorialandtelevisioncomment.Nodoubtsomeofthe

enthusiasmwasstimulatedbyHaldeman’sindefatigableoperativeswhohad

calledpoliticalsupportersalloverthecountrytosendintelegrams.Butthe

outpouringwentfarbeyondthecapacitiesofeventheWhiteHousepublic

relationsgeniuses.Nixonhadundoubtedlytouchedaraw nerve.Thepolls

showedamajorboostinhissupport.The Americanpeoplemightbetiringofthe

war;theywerenotreadytobedefeated.



Nixonwaselated.Professingindifferencetopublicadulation,he

neverthelessrelishedthosefewmomentsofacclaimthatcamehisway.Hekept

thecongratulatorytelegramsstackedonhisdeskinsuchnumbersthattheOval

Officecouldnotbeusedforwork,andfordaysherefusedtorelinquishthem.



Assoonasthepublicmoodbecameclear,organized pressuresbeganto

slackoffsomewhat,sothatforthefirsttimesinceJanuarytheAdministrationhad

somemaneuveringroom.



Wewouldneedmorethanthis,however,tooutwaitandoutmaneuverthe

hardandsingle‐mindedleadersinHanoi.In1969thoseleadersengagedinno

effortthatbyeventhemostgenerousinterpretationcouldbecallednegotiation.

Theyrefusedtoexploreoreventodiscussanycompromiseproposal—notthe

freeelectionsormixedelectoralcommissionsorcease‐fire.Unilateral

withdrawalsofmenandplanesdidnotimprovetheatmosphere;de‐escalation

didnotspeedupthenegotiatingprocess. Hanoiwasdeterminedtobreakourwill

athomeandtoachievethisitcouldpermitnotaflickerofhopeorthe

appearanceofprogress.AsthelastconvincedLeninistsintheworld,theNorth

Vietnamesehadnointentionofsharingpower.



InretrospectthereasoningbehindmyproposaloftheVancemissionin

AprilandmycriticismofVietnamizationinSeptemberandOctoberwasalmost

certainlycorrect.Timewasnotonourside,andpiecemealconcessionsdidmore

toencourageintransigencethancompromise.A nalytically,itwouldhavebeen

bettertoofferthemost generousproposalimaginable—andthen,ifrejected,to