Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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CongressmanAllardLowensteinofNewYorkproclaimedplanstomobilizepublic

supportforanother“dumpJohnson“‐stylemovement,thistimewithNixo nas

thetarget.Onthesameday,SenatorCharlesGoodellofNewYorkannounced

thathewouldintroducearesolutionintheSenaterequiringthewithdrawalofall

USforcesfromVietnambytheendof1970.



AstheOctober15Moratoriumdrewnearer,Congressionalcriticsfrom

bothpartiesgrewmorevocal.OnOctober2,SenatorMansfieldcalledonthe

Presidenttoproposeastandstillcease‐fire.SenatorEugeneMcCarthyonthe

samedayannouncedhissupportfortheGoodellproposal.SenatorCharlesPercy

onOctober3urgedtheAdministrationto haltalliedoffensiveoperationsaslong

astheenemydidnottakeadvantageofthesituation—thesameformulathathad

startedthediscussionsofthebombinghalt.BetweenSeptember24andOctober

15,elevenantiwarresolutionswereintroducedinCongress.Theseincluded

SenatorGoodell’sresolutiontocutofffundingforUScombatforcesbyDecember

1970,SenatorsMarkHatfieldandFrankChurch’sbillcallingforaschedulefor

immediatewithdrawalofallUSforcesfromVietnam,andSenatorsJacobJavits

andClaibornePell’sresolutionforwithdrawalofcombatforcesbytheendof

1970andforrevocationofthe1964GulfofTonkinResolutionunderwhich

PresidentJohnsonhadfirstintroducedAmericancombatforcesinVietnam.Public

statementsbywell‐knownpersonalitiesmultiplied.OnOctober9,Kingman

Brewster,presidentofYale,calledforunconditionalwithdrawalfromVietnam.

OnOctober10,seventy‐ninepresidentsofprivatecollegesanduniversitieswrote

toPresidentNixon,urgingafirmtimetableforwithdrawals.OnOctober 13,

WhitneyYoungoftheNationalUrbanLeaguereleasedastronglyworded

statementcallingthewar“amoralandspiritualdrain”andcontendingthatit

exacerbatedracialtensionsathome.OnOctober14,NorthVietnamesePremier

PhamVanDongfedourpublicdebatebyanunprecedentedopenletterto

AmericanantiwarprotestersinhonoroftheMoratorium,hailingtheir“struggle”

asa“noblereflectionofthelegitimateandurgentdemandoftheAmerican

people…theVietnamesepeopleandtheUnitedStatesprogressivepeopleagainst

UnitedStatesaggression[which]willcertainlybecrownedwithtotalvictory.”



TheMoratoriumdemonstrationstookplaceacrossthecountryonOctober

15.Acrowdof20,000packedanoontimerallyinNewYork’sfinancialdistrictand

listenedtoBillMoyers,PresidentJohnson’sformerAssistantandpresssecretary,

urgePresidentNixontorespo ndto theantiwarsentiment.Thirtythousand

gatheredontheNewHavenGreen.FiftythousandmassedontheWashington

MonumentgroundswithinsightoftheWhiteHouse.Thedemonstrationatthe

Monumentwasprecededbyawalkaround thecityofseveralthousandpeople

carryingcandles.AtGeorgeWashingtonUniversity,Dr.BenjaminSpockinformed

alargegatheringthatPresidentNixonwasincapableofendingthewarbecauseof

“limitationsonhispersonality.”ThedemonstrationinBoston,where100,000

peopleconvergedontheCommon,appearedtobethelargestofall.Thousands

spilledoverintoneighboringstreets.Anumberofspeakers,includingSenator

GeorgeMcGovern,addressedthehugecrowdasaskywritingplanedrewa peace

symbolintheskyoverhead.Aseachspeakerfinished,thecrowdbrokeinto a

chant,“PeaceNow,PeaceNow.”Thecommonfeatureofallthese

demonstrationswastheconvictionthattheAmericangovernmentwasthe

obstacletopeace;thatitneedednotaprogramforanhonorablepeace—a

conceptevokingcondescendingridicule—butinstructionontheundesirabilityof

war.



BothTimeandNewsweekdevotedseveralpagesandvividpicturestothe

demonstrationsinmajorcitiesandoncollegecampuses.Timeinterpretedthe

Moratorium’smessagetoPresidentNixonasfollows:



WhatinfactwasMDay’smessagetoRichardNixon?Manyparticipantsdemanded

immediateandtotalwithdrawalfromVietnamofallUSforces.Yetthemoratoriumbyno

meansconstitutedacalltothePresidentforthatsolution—althoughitevidentlygainednew

respectabilityandpopularity.WhatMDaydidraisewasanunmistakablesigntoRichardNixon

thathemustdomoretoendthewaranddoitfaster.Unlessthepaceofprogressquickens,he

willhavegreatdifficultymaintainingdomesticsupportforthetwoorthreeyearsthathe

believesheneedstoworktheUSoutofVietnamwithhonorandinawaythatwouldsafeguard

USinterestsandinfluenceintheworld.



Evenwiththeperspectiveofadecade,itisdifficulttoavoidafeelingof

melancholyatthisspectacleofanationtearingatitselfinthemidstofadifficult

war.ByOctobertheAdministrationhadannouncedwithdrawalofoverfifty

thousandtroops,thereductionofB‐52sortiesby20percent,oftacticalair

operationsby25percent,andachangeinbattlefieldorderstoGeneralAbrams

thatamountedtoadecisiontoendoffensiveoperations.Theprevious

Administrationhadsent550,000AmericanstoVietnam,hadnonegotiating

proposalexceptthatwewouldwithdrawsixmonthsaftertheNorthVietnamese

left,andhadstronglyimpliedthatitwouldinsistonretainingalargeresidual

forcethereafter.Yettherewaslittlecompunctionaboutharassingandvilifyinga

newPresidentwhohadofferedtotalwithdrawalwithintwelvemonthsofan

agreement,freeelectionsincludingtheNLF,andmixedelectoralcommissionson

whichtheNLFwouldberepresented,andwhohadopenedupthesubjectofa 

cease‐fire.



Thepublicmalaiseraisedinaprofoundwaythequestionofthe

responsibilityofleaderstothepublicinademocracy.Luckyistheleaderwhose

convictionsofwhatisinthenationalinterestcoincidewiththepublicmood.But

whatishisobligationwhentheseperceptionsdiffer?Ashallowviewof

democracywouldreducetheleadertopassivityandhavehimsimplyregister

publicopinionasheunderstandsit.Butsuchacourseisa negationofthe

qualitiesthatthepublichasarighttoexpectofthosechargedwithconductingits

affairs.Leadersareresponsiblenotforrunningpublicopinionpollsbutforthe

consequencesoftheiractions.Theywillbeheldtoaccountfordisastersevenif

thedecisionthatproducedthecalamityenjoyedwidespreadpublicsupportwhen

itwastaken.In1938theMunichagreementmadeChamberlainwidelypopular

andcastChurchillintheroleofanalarmisttroublemaker;eighteenmonthslater

ChamberlainwasfinishedbecausetheMunichagreementwasdiscredited.With

theVietnamwartheproblemwasevenmorecomplex.Rightlyorwrongly—Iam

stillconvincedrightly—wethoughtthatcapitulationorstepsthatamountedtoit

wouldusherinaperiodofdisintegratingAmericancredibilitythatwouldonly

acceleratetheworld’sinstability.Theoppositionwasvocal,sometimesviolent;it

comprisedalargeminorityofthecollege‐educated;itcertainlydominatedthe

mediaandmadefulluseofthem.Butinourviewitwaswrong.Wecouldnotgive

upourconvictions,allthelesssosincethemajorityoftheAmericanpeople

seemedtoshareourperception.Atnotimein1969didtheGallupPollshow

supportofthePresident’sconductofthewarbelow44percent(andthen

oppositionstoodat26percent).Attheheightofthemassivepublic

demonstrationsinOctober,58percentofthepublicsupportedthePresidentand

only32percentwereopposed.



Ifweweretomakeprogressinthenegotiations,itwasnecessaryto

convinceHanoithatthereweresomeirreducibleconditionsbeyondwhichwe

wouldnotretreat.Weneededsomeprograminthenameofwhichtorally

support.Butastheyearswentby,everyconcessionproduceddemandsfor

furtherconcessions.InthefaceofmediaandCongressionalopposition,there

neverwasanyfirmgroundonwhichtostand.



CriticismofHanoiwastoallpracticalpurposesnonexistent.Deadlocks 

tendedtobeascribedtoAmericanshortsightednessifnot tothemalignityofour

government;endingthewarwaspresentedassubstantiallywithinourcontrol

andasdeliberatelyavoidedbecauseofpsychologicalaberrations.Theimpression

wascreatedthatsomemagicalconcessionstoodbetweenusandasolution,

preventedaboveallbyUnitedStatesrigidity,ifnotbymoresubstantialmoral

defects.Theissuecametobedefinedintermsbothwoundingandmisleading:

whowasforandwhowasagainstthewar,wholikedbombingandwhoopposed

it.AnotableexceptionwastheWashingtonPost,which,contrarytoNixon’sview

ofitsunalterablehostility,wasinfactcompassionate.IteditorializedonOctober

12:



Thetragedyisthatitislate—thattherewerenovigilantesinoroutofgovernment

threeorfouryearsago,organizingaVietnamMoratorium.Forwhatisgoingtobehardabout

Wednesday’smanifestationisnotthemobilizingofit;theproblemisgoingtocomeinthe

interpretingofitandintheapplicationofagreatoutpouringofprotestinanypractical,

meaningfulway…



Eventhemostanguishedpeopleintheirprayersandprotestationsandteachingscan

givelittleusefulorspecificcounseltothePresident:aloudshouttostopthe war,however

heartfelt,isnotastrategy…



ItisalmostimpossibletobelievebothfromwhatthePresidentisdoingandfromany

reasonableestimateofwherehisbestinterestslie,thatheisnotachartermemberofthis

probablemajority(ofpeopledesiringanendtothewar).



Butthegeneralpatterncanbedemonstratedbyarereadingofeditorial

columnsoftheNewYorkTimes.InOctober1969IhadPeterRodman,amember

ofmystaff,tracetheevolutionoftheTimes’seditorialposition.Ididnotmeanto

singleouttheTimesforinvidiouscomparison;itwasamongthemorethoughtful

ofthecriticsandsawitselfasmakingreasonableproposalsforcompromise,not

meredemandsforourcapitulation.Yetthepatternofitsproposalsisinstructive

ofwhatwefaced.



TheNewYorkTimesin1969regularlycalledforAmericanconcessions

whentheothersideseemedconciliatory,inorder,itwasexplained,toseizethe

opportunityforpeace.

Italsocalledforconcessions,however,whentheother

sidewasintensifyingthewar,inthatcasebecausetheCommuniststep‐uphad

demonstratedthatourmilitaryeffortcouldneverbringpeace.

Therecurringcall

forAmericanconcessionsregardlessofHanoi’sreactionsledtheTimesintoa

seriesofconstantlyescalatingproposals.In1968theTimesadvocatedmutual

withdrawalbyboththeUSandNorthVietnam,butthissoonevolvedintoa

recommendationthattheUnitedStatesinitiatetheprocesswithatoken

withdrawal,thenintoademandforwithdrawalsregardlessofHanoi’sresponse,

andthenintopressuresforafixedandunconditionaltimeta ble forthecomplete

evacuationofUSforces.

AsforthescaleofAmericanwithdrawals,theTimes

firstcalledfortheUnitedStatessimplyto“initiate”or“begin”troopreductions;

aneditorialinMayreferredtoanticipatedUScutbacksoffiftytoonehundred

thousandmenas“substantial.”WhenNixonbeganthewithdrawalprogramat

MidwayinJune,thiswasfirstwelcomedas“asteptowarddisengagement”;by

September,howeve r,therewasgrumblingthatthewithdrawalof60,000was

“timid”and“token,”andnot“significant”or“adequate.”



Thesameescalationofproposalsoccurredinthepoliticaldimension.In

May1969,theTimescalledfora“coalitionelectoralcommission” tosupervise

freeelectionsinSouthVietnam.Butlessthanfourweekslater—amonthbefore

Saigonofferedtoestablishjustsuchajointcommission—thepositio nhad

evolvedtothenegotiationof“anagreement…onthefuturegovernmentofSouth

Vietnam,”thatis,an“interimcoalition.”

Asformilitarytactics,theTimesbegan

callingforacutbackofsearch‐and‐destroymissions inApril1969.Itsownnews

columnsonJuly25reportedthatsuchareductionwasabouttotakeplace.

Withintwoweeks,theTimeswascallingforastandstillcease‐fire.

Eventhis

provedinsufficient.NixonoffereditonOctober7,1970;Hanoipromptlyrejected

it.TheTimescontinueditscr iticism.



Eachoftheseescalatingconcessionswasadvancedasthekeytopeaceand

astheonlywaytogetnegotiationsstarted.

Oncemade,theconcessionwas

brieflyapplauded,andindeedHanoiwascalledontorespond.

ButwhenHanoi

ignoredtheproposals,theresult wasnotacallforAmericansteadfastnessbutfor

furtherUSconcessions

onthegroundthatthelackofprogresswasthefaultof

theUnitedStates

orofSaigon.

Theimportanceoftheearlierconcessionwas

nowdisparaged,

orelseitwasarguedthatHanoihadinfactreciprocated

or

thattheUnitedStateshadbeenhardeningitsposition.

Thesecallsforever

furtherAmericanconcessionswereregularlyexplainedbytheargumentthatthe

UnitedStateshadaspecialobligationtoproveitsgoodfaithtotheothersideand

toabandonthequestformilitaryvictory.

Nosuchobligationwasdiscoveredfor

theotherside.Thisevolutionofeditorialopinionwasnotunique.Itwas,instead,

avividexampleofhowourcriticscouldrarelybesatisfiedforlong,evenbythe

adoptionoftheirproposals.



ThepatternwasrepeatedinCongress.Forexample,SenatorWilliam

FulbrightreactedtothePresident’sMay14speechbysayingthatalthoughNixon

couldhavebeenmoreforthcoming,hedidnot“faultthePresidentfornotgoing

further.”YetbyJune22—despiteaninterveningunilateralAmericantroop

withdrawalannouncementof25,000—theSenatorsaidthathewasdisillusioned

andwouldreopentheSenateForeignRelationsCommitteehearingson

Vietnam.

InthesameveinSenatorMikeMansfieldreactedtotheMay14

speechbysayingthathewas“impressed”andthat“thereappearstobealotof

roomfor…giveandtake.”Twoweekslater,hewasattackingtheAdministration

becauseitsmilitarystrategygavehimno“indicationofbringingthewarto a

conclusion.”



Therewasnocivilityorgracefromtheantiwarleaders;theymercilessly

persecutedthosetheyregarde dasculpable.WaltRostowwasnotreappointedto

hisprofessorshipattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology;serviceatthe

highestlevelofhisgovernmentforeightyearshadobviouslyreducedhis

qualificationsforaprofessorshipatthataugustinstitution.WilliamBundy’s

appointmentaseditorofForeignAffairswasgreetedbyhowlsofprotest.Dean

Rusk,aftereightyearsofunselfish,able,anddedicatedserviceasSecretaryof

State,couldfindnopositionformonthsuntilhisalmamater,theUniversityof

Georgia,appointedhimtoaprofessorshipandgavehimapart‐timesecretary.

HubertHumphrey,thatgentleandconciliatoryandlovableman,wassubjectedto

harassmentinamannerthatstillmovedhimtotearsyearslater.Norhasthe

passageofadecadesoftenedtheimplacability.In1979twenty‐fourprofessorsof

NewYorkUniversityprotestedMcGeorge Bundy’sappointmenttothefacultyon

thegroundofcomplicityina“genocidal”war.Athirdofthefacultyofthe

UniversityofChicagointhesamemonthprotestedanawardtoRobert

McNamaraonthesamegrounds—ignoringthegenuinegenocidethathassince

occurredinIndochinaaftertheCommunistvictoryandthatthesemensoughtto

prevent.Itwasnevergrantedthatseriousmencouldhavebeenpursuingperhaps

misguidedbuthonorablepurposesoveradecadeago.Thedoveshaveprovedto

beaspeciallyviciouskindofbird.



TomethemostpoignantfatewasthatofRobertMcNamara,whohad

beenforcedoutbyJohnsonasSecretaryofDefensein1967andthenservedas

headoftheWorldBank.IhadfirstmetMcNamarainshortlyafterPresident

KennedyhadnamedhimtoheadthePentagon.Hestruckmeasbright,dynamic,

cocksure.Iapplaudedhiseffortstoputourdefensepolicyonamoreanalytical

basis.ButIthoughtthatheoveremphasizedthequantitativeaspectsofdefense

planning;byneglectingintangiblepsychologicalandpoliticalcomponentshe

aimedforapredictabilitythatwasillusoryandcausedneedlessstrainstoour

alliances.Hiseageryoungassociateshidtheirmoralconvictionsbehinda

seeminglyobjectivemethodof analysiswhichobscuredthattheirquestionstoo

oftenpredeterminedtheanswersandthattheseanswersledtoalong‐term

stagnationinourmilitarytechnology.



WithallthesedrawbacksMcNamaramadesubstantialcontributionsas

SecretaryofDefense.Hisgoalofasystematicapproachtodefensepolicywas

longoverdue;evenwhenIdidnotagreewithsomeofhisanswersIthoughtthat

hehadaskedtherightquestions.ButthoughanoutstandingSecretaryof

Defense,McNamarahadprovedanunfortunatechoiceformanagingawar. The

methodswhichonthewholehadstoodhimingoodsteadingettingagriponthat

mostunwieldyofgovernmentdepartmentswerelessappropriatetotheconduct

ofaconflictwhoseoutcome,too,dependedonsomanypoliticaland

psychologicalintangibles.Hemanagedatoneandthesametimetobetootough

andtooambiguous,toonarrowlyfocusedonbattlefieldconsiderationsandtoo

readytosettleforatmospherics.ButaboveallMc Namaradidnothavehisheart

intheassignment.Hehadwantedtorelatetheawesomepowerofournationto

humaneends;hehadnostom achforanendlesswar;hesufferedfromadeep

feelingofguiltforhavingacquiescedinthedecisionsthatmadeitbothinevitable

andinconclusive.WhenIreturnedfrommyfirsttriptoVietnamin1965hewas

thehighestrankingmemberoftheJohnsonAdministrationtoreceiveme.Ifound

himtorturedbytheemerginginconclusivenessofthewar;hewastornbetween

hisdoubtsandhissenseofduty,betweenhisanalysisandloyalties.Heknewthat

hewouldbeabletorestoremanyvaluedfriendshipsbyadramaticgestureof

protest,buthethoughtitwrongtospeakoutwhenheconsideredhimself

partiallyresponsibleandthoughthecouldpromotehisconvictionsmore

effectivelyinofficethanoutside.



Inthis,McNamaraintheendhadbecom eanexampleofalargerreality.

ThissameambivalencehadcometoaffectthatAdministration’sconductofthe

war,compellingitstentativecharacter,itsoscillationbetweenperiodsofviolence

andescapism.McNamarafromthebeginningurged—nay,pleadedfor—a

negotiatedandnotanimposedpeace.Hisdoorwasopentothoseanguishedby

America’sfrustrations.Inthecouncilsofthegovernmenthesupportedthesearch

fordiplomaticinitiativesmorevigorouslyandconsistentlythantheagencies

conventionallychargedwiththemandateforsolutions.In1967hehadbeenthe

principalimpetusbehindtheattempttonegotiateabombinghaltthroughtwo

Frenchintermediaries.Hehadbeensoanxiousthathecalledmeonthe

telephoneaftereverycontactwiththeNorthVietnamese,usingacovernameso

transparentthatitmusthavefooledtheintelligenceserviceslisteninginforallof

tenseconds.Shortlyafterthateffortfailed,Johnsonforcedhimout,reasoning—

notentirelyincorrectly—thatMcNamara’sdoubtshadmadetheeffective

conductofhisofficeimpossible, attheverymomentwhenpublicdenunciationof

theDefenseSecretaryforbeingawarmongerwasreachingfeverpitchandhe

couldmakenopublicappearancewithoutencounteringtheugliestformof

harassment.



AfterhisresignationMcNamaraconductedhimselfwithcharacteristic

dignity.Beginningin1969,hemissednoopportunitytopressonmecoursesof

actionthatthosewhowerevilifyinghimwouldhavewarmlyembraced.Though

hewasphysicallyassaultedoncampusesandcaricaturedinprintasawarmonger,

hewasalwaystoomuchawareoftheanguishofpolicymakingandofhisown

responsibilitytochoosetheroutetakenbysomeofhisprev iousassociatesof

publiclydamningtheAdministrationforaconflictithadnotstartedandthus

easinghisownpersonalposition.Hesufferedcruellybutnevershowedit.



Insuchanatmosphere,communicationbrokedownbetween an

Administrationthathadinheritedthewarandwhichbyeveryreasonable

criteriondemonstrablysoughttoliquidateit,andthoseelementsthathad

formerlyfeltastakeinthePresidencyandtheinternationalroleoftheUnited

States.Partofthereasonwasthedemoralizationoftheveryleadershipgroup

thathadsustainedthegreatinitiativesofthepostwarperiod.Thewarin

Indochinawastheculminationofthedisappo intmentsofadecadethathad

openedwiththeclarioncallofaresurgentidealismandendedwith

assassinations,racialandsocialdiscord,andradicalizedpolitics.Ourdilemmas

wereverymuchaproductofliberaldoctrinesofreformistint e rventionand

academictheoriesofgraduatedescalation.Thecollapseofthesehighaspirations

shatteredtheself‐confidencewithoutwhichEstablishmentsflounder.Theleaders

whohadinspiredourforeignpolicywereparticularlyupsetbytherageofthe

students.Theassaultoftheseuppermiddle‐classyoungmenandwomen—who

were,afterall,theirownchildren—wasnotsimplyonpolicies,butonlife‐styles

andvaluesheretoforeconsideredsacrosanct.Stimulatedbyasenseofguilt

encouragedbymodernpsychiatryandtheradicalchicrhetoricofuppermiddle‐

classsuburbia,theysymbolizedtheendofaneraofsimplefaithinmaterial

progress.Ironically,theinsecurityoftheireldersturnedthenormalgrievancesof

maturingyouthintoaninstitutionalizedrageandanationaltrauma.



TherewereothercauseshavingtodowiththestructureofAmerican

politics.TheVietnamwartoppledbothLyndonJohnsonandHubertHumphreyin

1968,notbecausethewholecountryshiftedagainstthewar(theWallacevote

andtheRepublicans,reflectingthemajorityview,wereeitherpro‐interventionor

silent),butbecausethewarsplittheirbas eofpower,theDemocraticParty.Once

outoftheWhiteHo use,theDemocraticPartyfounditeasyandtemptingtounite

inoppositiontoaRepublicanPresidentontheissueofVietnam.Thosewho

opposedthewarbutreluctantlysupportedJohnsonandHumphreywerenowno

longerconstrainedbypartyloyalty.OntheRepublicanside,RichardNixonas

PresidentwasabletoreconciletheRepublicanrighttoawithdrawalprogramand

aninconclusiveoutcomeforwhichconservativesmightwellhaveassaulteda

DemocraticPresident.Thustherewasnoconservativecounterweightto the

increasinglystridentprotests.Bytranquilizingtheright,Nixonliberatedthe

protestmovementfromitsconstraints;thecenterofgravityofAmericanpolitics

thusshifteddecisivelytotheantiwarsideeventhoughthepublichadnot

changeditsbasicview.



ThebasicchallengetothenewNixonAdministrationwassimilartode

Gaulle’sinAlgeria:towithdrawasanexpressionofpolicyandnotasacollapse.

ThiswasevenmoreimportantfortheUnitedStates,onwhosestabilitysomany

othercountriesdepended.ButdeGaullewasfortunateinhisopposition;itcame

fromthosewhowantedvictoryandwhothought hewasconcedingtoomuch.

ThisgavehimamarginformaneuverwiththeAlgerianrebels;theywerebound

toconsiderthealternativetodeGaulleasworse.Ouroppositioncamefrom

thosewhowantedmorerapidwithdrawal,ifnotdefeat,andthisdestroyedour

bargainingposition.Ourenemieswouldonlybenefitfromourdomesticcollapse.

Thus—eventhougheveryopinionpollshowedthemajorityoftheAmerican

publiceagerforanhonorablesolutionandfirmlyagainstcapitulation,asentiment

Nixonwasabletorallyskillfullyonmanyoccasions—themomentumofAmerican

politicswasinthedirectionofunilateralconcessions.FortheNixon

Administrationtohavekepttheseturbulentforcesinharnessaswedesigneda

self‐confidentpolicyoforderlydisengagementwasnosmallfeat.Indeed,tohave 

maintainedtheinitiativeforfouryearsandbroughtoffacompromise settlement

andabalanceofforcesonthegroundinVietnam,howeverprecarious,wasa

politicaltourdeforce.



Thereisnogainsaying,however,thattheridewasrougherthanitneed

havebeen.TheturbulentnationalmoodtouchedNixononhisraWestnerve.He

hadtakeninitiativesthatreversedthecourseofhispredecessor;hehad

withdrawntroopsandde‐esca latedthewar—allstepsurgedonhimbythe

Establishmentgroupswhomhesimultaneouslydistrustedandenvied.And

insteadofbeingacclaimed,hewasbeingcastigatedfornotmovingmorerapidly

onthepathonwhichtheyhadnotevendaredtotakethefirststep.Itwasnota

bigleaptotheviewthatwhathereallyfacedwasnotapolicydifferencebutthe

sameliberalconspiracythathadsoughttodestroyhimeversincetheAlgerHiss

case.HerewerealltheoldenemiesinthepressandintheEstablishment,uniting

onceagain;theywouldevenacceptifnoturgethemilitarydefeatoftheircountry

tocarryoutthevendettaofageneration.AndNixonpossessednoinstinct

whateverforunderstandingtheoutburstoftheyoung,andparticularlythe

universitystudents.Havingworkedhisownwaythroughcollegeandlawschool,

hethoughttheyshouldbegratefulfortheopportunityofahighereducation.He

hadanexaltedviewofIvyLeagueuniversities.WhenriotsbrokeoutatHarvardin

thespringof1969,hesaidtomethatitmightbeagoodthing,forthegreatest

universityinthecountrywouldundoubtedlyhandlethechallengeandthussetan

exampleforallothers.HeseemedgenuinelysurprisedwhenIgavehimmy

opinionthatunderHarvardproceduresnobodyafterthreedayswouldknowwho

haddonewhatto whom—whichisexactlywhathappened.Recallinghisown

youth,hecouldseeintheoutrageofthosehethoughtexceptionallyprivileged

nothingbutanindoctrinationbysinisterinfluenceshostiletohisperson.Hehad

nofeelingforthemetaphysicaldespairofthosewhosawbeforethema lifeof

affluenceinaspiritualdesert.Ifwhathewasconfrontingwasapolit icalbattlefor

survival,ratherthanaforeignpolicydebate,hebelievedhimselfjustifiedinusing