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929

Scanning Probe Microscopy in

Materials Science

Maxim P. Nikiforov and Dawn A. Bonnell

1 Introduction

The quest toward understanding the behavior of condensed matter has

relied on measuring structure, bonding, and properties at increasingly

local levels. This has driven advances in techniques that probe both

soft and hard materials directly as well as indirectly. Many of these

advances are described in other chapters of this volume. While struc-

ture and bonding-based probes have accessed molecular and atomic

scales for decades, local determination of properties has been elusive.

The emergence of scanning probes ﬁ lled this gap to some extent.

There are three major classes of scanning probe techniques that

access electronic, magnetic, optical, and mechanical properties. Scan-

ning tunneling microscopy (STM) was the ﬁ rst and is based on electrons

tunneling between a metal tip and a sample. The distance sensitivity

of tunneling imparts intrinsically high spatial resolution and the

voltage dependence yields local density of states. It is, however, appli-

cable only to conducting materials. Another class of techniques is

based on local optical responses induced and/or detected with a very

ﬁ ne optical ﬁ ber. These techniques, e.g., near ﬁ eld optical microscopy, ﬁ nd

extensive application in organic and biological systems.

The focus of this chapter will be those probes that exploit the interac-

tions of a small tip with a surface that are detected via the properties

of a cantilever to which the tip is attached. The original cantilever

probe, atomic force microscopy (AFM), is based on van der Waals interac-

tions at the tip/surface junction. As a cantilever is mechanically oscil-

lated near its resonant frequency (usually 10–500 kHz) and, at relatively

small sample-tip separations (usually 0.5–100 nm), the van der Waals

interaction causes a force that alters the oscillation. Cantilever motion

is detected with laser reﬂ ection into a photodiode. If this measurement

is made at every point as the tip is scanned across a surface, and a

signal is used to maintain a proﬁ le at constant force, the topographic

structure of the surface is mapped. It was almost immediately under-

stood that other interactions can be detected with this scheme and,

furthermore, that these interactions might be distinguished by their