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Chapter 8 LEEM and SPLEEM 645

ferromagnetic layers, ferromagnetic layers covered with nonmagnetic

overlayers, ferromagnetic–nonmagnetic–ferromagnetic sandwiches,

and small ferromagnetic crystals.

Under certain conditions large regions of a thin Fe ﬁ lm can be grown

with constant thickness and atomically ﬂ at surfaces. These show pro-

nounced quantum size effects (Figure 8–26).

The intensity reﬂ ected

from regions with different thickness shows pronounced spin-

dependent quantum size oscillations as a function of energy (Figure

8–27) from which the exchange-split band structure above the vacuum

level can be derived.

87,88

The early SPLEEM work concentrated on Co ﬁ lms on W(110)

without

279–281

and with

282

nonmagnetic overlayers, on Co on Au ﬁ lms

on W(110),

283

and on initial studies of Co/Cu/Co sandwiches.

280

Some

of the more interesting results were the dependence of the spin reori-

entation transition from out-of-plane to in-plane magnetization—

deduced from the disappearance of the in-plane magnetic contrast—upon

the state of the Au ﬁ lm and the strong inﬂ uence of the substrate topo-

graphy;

283

by Cu and Pd overlayers due to the different inelastic mean free paths

in these materials; and the quantum size effect in the magnetic signal

caused by Cu overlayers,

282

which was studies later in considerable

detail in Cu ﬁ lms on fcc Co(100).

Co on W(110) was found to have up to about ten monolayers an interest-

ing “wrinkled,” predominantly in-plane magnetization . The mecha-

nism of the spin-reorientation transition in Co layers on Au(111) layers

on W(110) could be elucidated in great detail . Because of the long

inelastic mean free path in Cu and Au and the short inelastic mean free

path in Co, the interlayer exchange coupling between Co layers through

Cu and Au layers could be shown to be much more complex than

deduced from macroscopic measurements. In particular, the depen-

dence of interface roughness-induced biquadratic coupling upon ﬁ lm

thickness and growth conditions could be demonstrated . A good

example of the sensitivity and ﬂ exibility of SPLEEM is the study of the

spin reorientation transition of Fe–Co alloy layers on Au(111) layers on

W(110) . As seen in Figure 8–38 the magnetic contrast is already

quite strong at 1.22 monolayers, increases only slightly with thickness,

and then decreases when ﬁ lm approaches the spin reorientation transi-

tion at about 2.7 monolayers. During the approach of the tran sition a

pronounced striped phase develops and the magnetization tilts increas-

ingly but converts abruptly into large, predominantly in-plane magne-

tized domains. The surface has large step bunches pointing toward and

away from the vapor source, which causes the transition to occur earlier

or later. In lateral averaging studies this would smear out the transition

so that it would appear more continuous. Many other details can be

extracted from the SPLEEM images, which indicate a rather complex

transition.

The growth and magnetic domain structure on other W surfaces

shows the crucial role that the substrate orientation plays. On a well-

oriented W(111) surface many small domains in various orientations

293

294

295,296

297,298

With the spin manipulator all three M components can be measured.

the large difference in the damping of the magnetic signal

646 E. Bauer

are observed, indicating weak in-plane anisotropy in the Co(0001)-like

layer that forms after the initial pseudomorphic growth. On a slightly

misoriented surface only large domains with opposite M are observed,

presumably induced by steps . On the W(100) surface Co grows with

(11–20) plane parallel to the substrate and forms long narrow and tall

crystals. No magnetic signal could be obtained because the top surface

of the crystals is not parallel to the substrate so that no electrons are

reﬂ ected along the optical axis in the energy range in which the mag-

netic signal is strong . This shows one of the limitations of SPLEEM.

Another interesting and much discussed magnetic thin ﬁ lm system

is Fe on Cu(100). This system passes through several magnetic transi-

tions with increasing ﬁ lm thickness and has been studied thoroughly

with SPLEEM as a function of thickness, deposition rate, and tempera-

ture . Quantitative measurements allowed ﬁ tting of the data to

theoretical models of the thickness dependence of the Curie tempera-

ture and of the critical behavior. The deposition rate was found to have

major inﬂ uence on initial ﬁ lm growth and magnetism. The same

system, Fe/Cu(100), was used to demonstrate that SPLEEM imaging is

also possible in a magnetic ﬁ eld perpendicular to the surface. From the

images taken in ﬁ elds up to ±20 Oe the hysteresis curve of the layer

could be determined . In Ni ﬁ lms on Cu(100) very large domains were

Figure 8–38. The spin reorientation transition in a Fe–Co alloy layer on Au(111). The top row shows

the out-of-plane component of the magnetization and the bottom row the in-plane component. Elec-

tron energy 2.5 eV and diameter of ﬁ eld of view 10 µm.

299

300

301,302

303

298

Chapter 8 LEEM and SPLEEM 647

observed whose domain walls were wide enough (400 nm) to allow

determination of the proﬁ le of the Néel walls .

SPLEEM can be used not only for the study of the magnetization in

thin ﬁ lms but also for that in small particles whose domain structure is

of interest in magnetic recording. Small particles with a wide range of

shapes can be grown in a SPLEEM instrument on single crystal sub-

strates either by deposition or by annealing at elevated temperatures.

The shapes range from nearly isometric crystals with lateral dimensions

of several 100 nm to long wires with widths down to less than 10 nm.

Figure 8–39 illustrates an intermediate case, wide Fe ribbons on W(110).

The domain structure in these crystals is determined mainly by shape

and misﬁ t strain anisotropy.

Concluding this section, the strengths of SPLEEM should be empha-

sized once more: correlation with the microstructure, fast image acqui-

sition compared to other magnetic imaging methods, high surface

sensitivity, and easy access to all three magnetization components.

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