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1130 U. Weierstall

current or creating other nonequilibrium effects in the superconductor.

No such current-dependent effects could be observed.

LT-STM provides a novel probe of inhomogeneous superconduc-

ting structures, of which the normal metal-to-superconductor planar

interface is the most basic conﬁ guration. If the electrical contact be-

tween the two metals is good, superconductivity is weakened in the

superconductor and induced in the normal metal. The phenomenon is

known as the proximity effect. LT-STM has been used as a local

probe of the superconducting proximity effect across a normal metal–

superconductor interface of a short coherence length superconductor

(Tessmer et al., 1996). Both the topography and the local electronic

density of states were measured at 1.6 K on a superconducting NbSe

crystal decorated with nanometer-sized Au islands. A quasiparticle

bound state was observed not only in the Au islands, but even when

tunneling directly into the NbSe

, which is evidence for a signiﬁ cant

reduction of the superconductivity inside the NbSe

induced by the

proximity of the Au overlayer. Local tunneling spectroscopy for an

Nb/In/As/Nb superconducting proximity system was demonstrated

with a low-temperature scanning tunneling microscope at 4.2 K (Inoue

and Takayanagi, 1991). It was found that the local electron density of

states in the InAs region is spatially modulated by the neighboring

superconductor.

Figure 17–46. Abrikosov ﬂ ux lattice imaged by LT-STM. Differential conduc-

tance map at 1.3 mV (above the superconducting gap) recorded on NbSe

1.8 K and 10 kG magnetic ﬁ eld. An enhanced density of states is observed away

from the core and the density of states decreases at the vortex center. (From

Hess et al., 1989. Reproduced by permission of Bell Labs, Lucent Technologies

Inc.)

Chapter 17 Low-Temperature Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 1131

The local effects of individual Zn impurity atoms in the high-tem-

perature superconductor Bi

CaCu

8+δ

(BSCCO) have been studied

with an LT-STM at 4.2 K (Figure 17–47) (Pan et al., 2000). Recording a

dI/dV map at zero bias, i.e., in the superconducting gap, revealed the

Zn impurity scattering centers as bright dots. This is an image of the

quasiparticle density of states in the vicinity of the impurity atoms.

Imaging of the spatial dependence of the quasiparticle density of states

in the vicinity of the impurity atoms reveals a four-fold symmetric

quasiparticle “cloud” aligned with the nodes of the d-wave supercon-

Figure 17–47. Constant current image (a) and zero-bias differential conductance map (b) of a cleaved

single crystal of BSCCO at 4 K. (a) The surface BiO plane is exposed after cleavage. The atoms form a

supermodulation along the crystal b-axis. (b) A map of the DOS at the Fermi energy (V = 0) Most of

the image is dark, which is due to a low quasiparticle DOS at the Fermi level as expected for a super-

conductor far below T

. The Zn impurities show up as bright features ∼15 Å

in extent, each exhibiting

a cross-shaped structure. (From Pan et al., 2000.)

1132 U. Weierstall

ducting gap, which is believed to characterize superconductivity in

these materials (Figure 17–48).

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Some recent additions to the literature (Chapter 19)

Additional developments prior to 2008 include the application of diffractive

imaging to femtosecond soft-X-ray imaging (Chapman et al., 2006) and the

application of a combined ptychography/iterative method in X-ray imaging,

which, by removing the need for compact support, allows use of thin-film

samples (Rodenburg et al., 2007). There has also been a renaissance of interest

in Fourier Transform holography (for x-ray imaging), which also solves this

problem to provide femtosecond, single-shot imaging (Marchesini et al., 2007).

For divergent-beam in-line X-ray holography (the original Gabor arrange-

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improve resolution, see Williams et al., (2006). A unified theoretical overview

of all these new phasing methods can be found in Marchesini (2007); see also

the review by Rodenburg (2008).

1141

Electron Holography

Rafal E. Dunin-Borkowski, Takeshi Kasama,

Martha R. McCartney, and David J. Smith

1 Introduction

Electron holography, as originally described by Gabor (1949), is based

on the formation of an interference pattern or “hologram” in the trans-

mission electron microscope (TEM). In contrast to most conventional

TEM techniques, which only record spatial distributions of image

intensity, electron holography allows the phase shift of the high-energy

electron wave that has passed through the specimen to be measured

directly. The phase shift can then be used to provide information about

local variations in magnetic induction and electrostatic potential. This

chapter provides an overview of the technique of electron holography.

It begins with an outline of the experimental procedures and theoreti-

cal background that are needed to obtain phase information from

electron holograms. Medium-resolution applications of electron

holography to the characterization of magnetic domain structures and

electrostatic ﬁ elds are then described, followed by a description of

high-resolution electron holography and alternative modes of electron

holography. The majority of the experimental results described below

are obtained using the off-axis, or “sideband,” TEM mode, which is the

most widely used mode of electron holography at present. For further

details about electron holography, the interested reader is referred to

several recent books (e.g., Tonomura et al., 1995; Tonomura, 1998; Völkl

et al., 1998) and review papers (e.g., Tonomura, 1992; Midgley, 2001;

Lichte, 2002; Matteucci et al., 2002).

1.1 Basis of Off-Axis Electron Holography

The off-axis mode of electron holography involves the examination of

an electron-transparent specimen using defocused illumination from

a highly coherent ﬁ eld-emission gun (FEG) electron source. To acquire

an off-axis electron hologram, the region of interest on the specimen

should be positioned so that it covers approximately half the ﬁ eld of

view. An electron biprism, which takes the form of a ﬁ ne (<1 µm diam-

eter) wire (Möllenstedt and Düker, 1954), is located below the sample,