Gardiner V., Matthews H. The changing geography of the United Kingdom
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FIGURES
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4.5 A new approach to hard rock quarry rehabilitation 80
5.1 Regional distribution of selected crops, 1996 95
5.2 Regional distribution of selected livestock, 1996 97
5.3 Regional distribution of selected types of farming, 1996 100
6.1 The railway network in 1998 114
6.2 The motorway and principal road network in 1998 117
6.3 Light rail transport systems in major cities 120
6.4 Changes in maritime trade, 1986–96 124
7.1 Employment, output and investment in manufacturing, 1985–97 132
7.2 Imports and exports of finished manufactured goods, 1981–96 132
7.3 Balance of trade in finished manufactured goods, 1981–96 133
8.1 Change in employment by sector and region, 1981–97 152
8.2 Change in employment by gender and region, 1981–97 154
8.3 Regional unemployment differentials, 1979–98 155
8.4 Unemployment rates by region, 1979, 1998 156
8.5 The geography of economic ‘recovery’, 1993–7 157
8.6 Job gap by gender, 1993–7 158
9.1 Deaths, births and fertility, 1945–96 171
9.2 Net migration between the South and the rest of the UK, 1971–96 178
9.3 Population change, 1951–91 180
9.4 Population change for inner areas of London and England’s six Principal
Metropolitan Cities 181
9.5 Population change by age group, 1971–2021 184
9.6 Composition of households, 1961–96 186
10.1 Framework of local labour-market areas 191
10.2 Housebuilding completions and council house sales 195
10.3 Regional shopping centres, 1996 199
10.4 Incivilities and neighbourhood change 202
10.5 Numerical distribution of Afro-Caribbeans and Indians, 1991 205
10.6 Location of UDCs in England and Wales 208
12.1 Infant mortality rates, 1950–3 233
12.2 Infant mortality rates, 1990–2 233
12.3 Mortality rates, ages 1–4, 1950–3 234
12.4 Mortality rates, ages 1–4, 1990–2 234
12.5 Mortality rates, ages 5–14, 1950–3 235
12.6 Mortality rates, ages 5–14, 1990–2 235
12.7 Mortality rates, ages 15–44, 1950–3 236
12.8 Mortality rates, ages 15–44, 1990–2 236
12.9 Mortality rates, ages 45–64, 1950–3 237
12.10 Mortality rates, ages 45–64, 1990–2 237
12.11 Age standardised mortality ratios (under 65), 1950–3 239
12.12 Age standardised mortality ratios (under 65), 1990–2 239
13.1 Theme parks, Center Parcs and music festivals 263
13.2 Heritage, shopping, club culture and ‘TV Tourism’ 266
14.1 Distribution of ethnic groups, 1991 280
14.2 Canal Street: ‘before’ and ‘after’ reinvestment in Manchester’s Gay Village 285
FIGURES
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14.3a Showing faith, Belfast, July 1991 290
14.3b On the way home, Belfast, the Twelfth, 1994 291
15.1 The ‘top tier’ of local government from April 1998 297
16.1 The changing regional geography of the vote, 1955–97 320
16.2 Vote share for Scottish and Welsh nationalists, 1955–97 323
16.3 Percentage voting ‘Yes’ to a Scottish Parliament 325
16.4 Percentage voting ‘Yes’ to a Welsh Assembly 329
17.1 Map of Chernobyl fall-out, April-May 1986 342
17.2 The hazard spectrum 343
17.3 Adjustment choices 345
17.4 Cost of insurance claims, ‘subsidence’ damage, 1974–91 346
17.5 Changing patterns of recorded hazard events 349
17.6 River channelisation in England and Wales 352
17.7 Dwellings within zones affected by 1:50 to 1:100 year flood levels, mid-1980s 353
17.8 Rainstorm hazard 355
17.9 Potential changes to hydrological parameters produced by urbanisation 356
17.10 Generalised pattern of predicted sea-level change 358
17.11 East coast flood hazards 359
17.12 Distribution of severe tornadoes (until 1980), England and Wales 363
17.13 Wind hazard 364
17.14 Comparison of winter sunshine hours in London, Kew, Wisley and
Rothamsted, 1930–77 369
17.15 Historic earthquake magnitudes and intensities 374
17.16 Distribution of reported landslides 376
17.17 Distribution of ‘landslide prone’ geological strata 377
17.18 Radon-affected areas with concentrations above 200 Bq/m
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378
18.1 Examples of pollution incidents and control measures, 1990s 384
18.2 Total emissions of selected local air pollutants, 1980–95 389
18.3 Tropospheric ozone levels, 1990–5 392
18.4 Total emissions of carbon dioxide and methane, 1980–95 395
18.5 Estimated waste production, 1995 398
18.6 Reported water pollution incidents in England and Wales, 1988–96 401
19.1 Average annual rainfall, based on 1880–1915 data 407
19.2 Temperature changes during the late glacial and Holocene periods 410
19.3 Annual anomalies for Central England Temperature, and for precipitation
in England and Wales, and Scotland 412
19.4 Locational shift of contours for risk of oat crop failure, cool and
warm periods, Lammermuir Hills 415
19.5 Comparison of total 1989 catch of the moth orthosia gothica with mean for all
previous years 416
19.6 Water abstraction for agricultural use, 1975–94, and subsidence-related
insurance claims, 1975–95 417
19.7 Seasonal Central England Temperatures, 1659–1997 419
19.8 Frequency of ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ days, Central England Temperature
record, 1772–1997 421
19.9 Winter precipitation, England and Wales, 1766–1997 422
FIGURES
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19.10 Annual frequency of ‘severe gales’, 1881–1997 422
19.11 NAO Index, November-March, 1825/6–1997/8 423
19.12 Changes in sea-level over the last 100–150 years 424
19.13 Natural variability of thirty-year means of annual and seasonal precipitation
and temperature, different regions 426
19.14 Estimated change in tide-level return period, Harwich, East Anglia 430
19.15 Simulated changes in global-mean temperature and sea-level, 1990–2100 432
20.1 Protected areas as at 18 October 1993 456
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Tables
2.1 Estimated abstractions from surface and groundwater sources, England and Wales,
1985–95 10
2.2 Total abstraction of water, England and Wales, 1995 10
2.3 Compliance for iron, 1991–7, for water companies in England and Wales 20
2.4 Drought orders, England and Wales, 1976–95 28
4.1 Land requirement for the china clay industry, St Austell 71
5.1 Farm output, 1975–95 89
5.2 Self-sufficiency in agricultural production, 1961–95 89
5.3 Agricultural trade with members of the EU, 1971–96 90
5.4 The UK’s changing share of EU output, 1969–95 90
5.5 Farm expenditure, 1950–96 91
5.6 Workers employed on agricultural holdings, 1939–96 91
5.7 Production and yield of selected crops, 1939–97 92
5.8 Farm-size structure of UK agriculture, 1976, 1996 93
5.9 Enterprise concentration in the dairy sector, 1975–95 94
5.10 Enterprise concentration, 1996 94
5.11 Type of farm structure, 1975, 1996 98
5.12 Trends in selected crops and livestock, 1938–96 99
5.13 Agricultural marketing, 1982–94 103
6.1 Passenger traffic by mode of transport 109
6.2 Freight traffic by mode of transport 109
6.3 Passenger journeys by mode and purpose, 1993–5 109
6.4 Railways open for traffic, 1965–96 110
6.5 Changes in rail traffic 111
6.6 Principal train operating companies, 1998 112
6.7 Changes in road passenger traffic, 1965–96 115
6.8 Changes in numbers of principal types of vehicles, 1986, 1996 115
TABLES
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6.9 Changes in traffic distribution by types of road, 1986, 1996 118
6.10 Commuter traffic in major conurbations, 1996 119
6.11 Changes in air traffic, 1965–96 122
7.1 Employment, output and investment in manufacturing, 1985–97 131
7.2 Percentage of employees in manufacturing, 1981, 1990, 1995 134
7.3 Average weekly earnings in manufacturing, 1991, 1996 135
7.4 Manufacturing as a percentage of regional GDP, 1987, 1991, 1995 136
7.5 Net capital expenditure in manufacturing by region as a percentage of
UK total, 1985–94 137
7.6 Employment, output and investment in manufacturing by region as a
percentage of UK total, 1995 138
7.7 Government expenditure on preferential assistance to industry by DTI
region, 1988–96 144
9.1 Population of the UK, 1961–2021 170
9.2 Net international migration, 1986–95 174
9.3 Population change, 1981–96 177
9.4 Population change by families and groups of local authority districts,
England, Wales, 1991–5 182
9.5 Population by ethnic group, 1995/6 185
10.1 Budgets subsumed within the Single Regeneration Budget, 1994/5 210
11.1 ‘Rural’ and ‘urban’ population, 1991 214
11.2 Population change in England, 1971–91 215
11.3 Parishes without certain services 222
11.4 Some factors affecting the viability of village services 223
12.1 People living in local authority areas by SMR 240
12.2 Excess mortality 241
12.3 SMRs under 65 241
12.4 Life expectancy starting points 243
12.5 Occupational classification 246
15.1 The structure of local government, mid-1970s to mid-1980s 300
15.2 Typology of local government services, England and Wales, 1990/1 304
15.3 The structure of elected local government, 1998 307
15.4 Political control of local government, May 1997 309
15.5 Party strength, May 1997 310
16.1 Support for the post-war consensus, 1979–97 318
16.2 Perceptions of prosperity, 1992–7 319
16.3 Constitutional preferences in Scotland and Wales, 1997 327
16.4 Scottish and Welsh national identity 327
18.1 Twelve ‘prominent European environmental problems’ 387
18.2 Effects of tropospheric ozone and other photochemical pollutants 391
18.3 Effects of acid deposition 393
18.4 Potential effects of global climate change 394
18.5 Effects of increased exposure to ultraviolet light 396
18.6 Environmental impacts of landfill waste disposal 397
19.1 Levels of ‘natural’ climate variability 413
19.2 Exceptionally warm months, seasons and years, 1990s 420
TABLES
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19.3 Land surface falling in different temperature zones, 1961–90 (with 2050s
comparison) 427
19.4 Representative changes in sea-level by the 2050s 429
19.5 Estimated seasonal gale frequencies, 2020s, 2050s, 2080s 430
20.1 Information about land cover 443
20.2 Information about preservation and conservation 444
20.3 Environmental indicators: land cover and landscape 445
20.4 Environmental indicators: wildlife and habitats 445
20.5 Changes in plant diversity in stream-sides, 1978–90 452
20.6 Protected areas as at 31 March 1995 452
20.7 Environmentally managed land in England, 1991–4 454
20.8 Designated areas, December 1995 455
20.9 SSSIs, Ramsar sites and Special Protection Areas, 1984–94 458
20.10 Damage to Sites of Special Scientific Interest, 1996–7 459
20.11 Changes in plant diversity within habitat types, 1978, 1990 462
20.12 Changes in diversity of breeding birds between 1968–72 and 1988–91 463
20.13 National conservation grant schemes operated by English Nature, 1997 465
21.1 Young people’s right to say 472
21.2 Action agenda for improving children’s right to participation 480
21.3 Habitat 2: recommendations for young people’s involvement in planning 481
xvi
Boxes
2.1 Bristol Water 29
7.1 The automotive industry 140
7.2 The competition for large inward investment projects 146–7
11.1 The Forest of Dean: rural and industrial 217
11.2 The Western Isles, Skye and Lochalsh: does remoteness matter? 220
11.3 Goring and Streatley: a slice of ‘middle England’ 227
22.1 Hilbre island: a natural environment, an experience of nature—or not? 485
22.2 Suburban London 486
xvii
Contributors
John Blunden is Reader in Geography at The Open University and is director of a
postgraduate environment programme at Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge. He has been
a visiting professor at universities in Canada and the United States and has been engaged
in research for the European Commission in the field of rural development. Publications
include: An Overcrowded World (1995), Energy, Resources, and Environment and
Environment, Population and Development (both 1996).
Ian Bowler is a Reader in Human Geography at the University of Leicester. His teaching
and research specialisms lie in agricultural geography and the rural geography of the
European Union. His books include: The Geography of Agriculture in Developed Market
Economies (Longman), CAP and the Regions (INRA), Agricultural Change in Developed
Countries (Cambridge University Press) and Agriculture Under the Common Agricultural
Policy (Manchester University Press).
Tony Champion is Professor of Population Geography at the University of Newcastle upon
Tyne. His principal interests are the monitoring and analysis of population and social
change in Britain, particularly in their regional and local dimension. Publications include
Population Matters: The Local Dimension (1993), The Population of Britain in the 1990s
(1996) and Urban Exodus (1998).
Keith Chapman is Professor of Geography at the University of Aberdeen. Interests in the
oil, gas and chemical industries are reflected in various publications including The
International Petrochemical Industry: Evolution and Location (Blackwell, 1991) and in
current research on industry restructuring in the EU.
David Crouch is Professor of Cultural Geography at Anglia University and Visiting Professor
of Geography and Tourism at Karlstad University, Sweden. David has researched and
CONTRIBUTORS
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written widely on leisure, culture, landscape and tourism, and has a special interest in the
making of lay geographical knowledge.
Daniel Dorling is a lecturer in the School of Geographical Sciences at the University of
Bristol. His research interests are in the visualisation of spatial social structure, the
changing economic, medical and political geographies of Britain, and, in particular, the
polarisation of health and life chances. He has published a New Social Atlas of Britain
(Wiley, 1995) and helped edit Statistics in Society (Arnold, 1998) among other books
and papers.
Vince Gardiner is Director of the School of Social Science and Professor of Geography,
Liverpool John Moores University. His work on water resources includes Water Demand
Forecasting, with Paul Herrington (GeoBooks, 1986), and he edited the Royal
Geographical Society (with IBG)’s Geographical Journal from 1995 to 1998.
David Herbert is Senior Pro Vice-Chancellor and Professor of Geography at University of
Wales, Swansea. His publications in Urban Geography include Cities in Space: City as
Place (3rd edition 1997, with C.J.Thomas); Communities within Cities (1993, with
W.K.D.Davies), and Crime, Policing and Place (1992, edited with D.J.Evans and N.R.
Fyfe). He has also published on aspects of heritage and tourism.
Jonathan Horner is a Senior Lecturer in Environmental Studies at Roehampton Institute
London and was formerly a Scientific Office (Pollution Control) working for Rotherham’s
Environmental Health Department. He has an MSc in Environmental Technology (taken
at Imperial College) which included research on heavy metal pollution monitoring, a
PhD (also Imperial College) which considered the effects of acid rain and fluoride pollution
on plants and the Royal Society of Health’s Diploma in Air Pollution Control.
Mike Hulme is a Reader in Climatology in the Climatic Research Unit at the University of
East Anglia. He has published extensively in the field of climate change, including climate
scenario reports commissioned by the UK Government, the European Commission, the
United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the World Bank, and WWF
International. He writes a monthly column for the Guardian newspaper on UK climate
and edited The Climates of the British Isles published by Routledge in 1997.
Peter Jackson is Professor of Human Geography at the University of Sheffield where he
teaches social and cultural geography. His current research includes studies of the
production, content and readership of men’s lifestyle magazines, the changing identity
of Ukrainians in Bradford, and the cultural geography of transnational commodities
flows. His most recent book is Shopping, Place and Identity (Routledge, 1998).
Ron Johnston is a Professor of Geography at the University of Bristol, having previously
been Professor of Geography at the University of Sheffield (1972–92) and Vice-Chancellor
of the University of Essex (1992–5). He has written widely on electoral, urban and political
geography, and was a co-editor of the first two editions of this book.
CONTRIBUTORS
xix
David Jones is Professor of Physical Geography at the London School of Economics and
Political Science and currently Convenor of the Department of Geography and
Environment. His publications on environmental hazards and risk include contributions
in Risk: Analysis, Perception and Management (Royal Society, 1992), co-editorship (with
C.Hood) of Accident and Design: Contemporary Debates in Risk Management (UCL
Press, 1996) and co-authorship (with M.Lee) of Landsliding in Britain (HMSO, 1994).
Hugh Matthews is Professor of Geography and Director of the Centre of Children and
Youth at University College Northampton. Hugh is editor of the Journal of Geography
in Higher Education and past Director of the Geography Discipline Network. He has
written many books and journal articles including Making Sense of Place: Children’s
Understanding of Large-scale Environments (Harvester-Wheatsheaf, 1992).
Malcolm Moseley is Professor of Rural Community Development in the Countryside and
Community Research Unit of Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education.
He was Director of the ACRE, the national association of England’s Rural Community
Councils, for six years. Since 1992 he has been an adviser to the European Union’s
‘LEADER Observatory’ in Brussels. His recent research has related to the provision of
services in sparsely populated areas, to regeneration partnerships and to the involvement
of local people in rural development.
Joe Painter is Lecturer in Geography at the University of Durham. His research interests
lie in the relations between politics, space and place in contemporary Europe and North
America. He has published widely on the local state, local governance, urban politics
and regulation theory and is the author of Politics, Geography and ‘Political Geography’
(Arnold, 1995).
Chris Park is Senior Lecturer in Geography and Principal of The Graduate College at
Lancaster University. A graduate of the universities of Ulster and Exeter, he has written
about environmental issues for more than two decades. He is author of the Routledge
textbook The Environment: Principles and Applications.
Charles Pattie is Senior Lecturer in Geography at the University of Sheffield, where he
teaches political geography and quantitative methods. His main research is in electoral
geography, and he has published widely on regional trends in voting, economic influences
on the vote, and party campaigning. He is co-author of a major study of the constituency
redistricting process in Britain, The Boundary Commission (Manchester University Press,
1999), and has recently completed a project on the 1997 Scottish devolution referendum.
Jamie Peck is Professor of Geography and Director of the International Centre for Labour
Studies at the University of Manchester. With research interests in economic regulation
and governance, urban political economy, welfare reform and labour-market restructuring,
his publications include Work-Place: the Social Regulation of Labour Markets (Guilford,
New York, 1996) and Workfare States (Guilford, New York, 1999).