Environmental Encyclopedia

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Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Animal Welfare Institute

especially the right to be treated as an end in itself, and

never merely as a means to human ends.

The environmental community has not embraced ani-

mal rights; in fact, the two groups have often been at odds.

A rights approach focused exclusively on animals does not

cover all the entities such as ecosystems that many environ-

mentalists feel ought to be considered morally. Yet a rights

approach that would satisfy environmentalists by encom-

passing both living and nonliving entities may render the

concept of rights philosophically and practically meaningless.

Regan accuses environmentalists of environmental fascism,

insofar as they advocate the protection of species and ecosys-

tems at the expense of individual animals. Most animal

rightists advocate the protection of ecosystems only as neces-

sary to protect individual animals, and assign no more value

to the individual members of a highly

endangered species

than to those of a common or domesticated species. Thus,

because of its focus on the individual, animal rights can

offer no realistic plan for managing natural systems or for

protecting

ecosystem health

, and may at times hinder the

efforts of resource managers to effectively address these

issues.

For most animal activists, the practical implications

of the rights view are clear and uncompromising. The rights

view holds that all animal research, factory farming, and

commercial or sport

hunting and trapping

should be abol-

ished. This change of moral status necessitates a fundamental

change in contemporary Western moral attitudes towards

animals, for it requires humans to treat animals as inherently

valuable beings with lives and interests independent of hu-

man needs and wants. While this change is not likely to

occur in the near future, the efforts of animal rights advocates

may ensure that wholesale slaughter of these creatures for

unnecessary reasons that is no longer routinely the case,

and that when such sacrifice is found to be necessary, it is

accompanied by moral deliberation.

[Ann S. Causey]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Hargrove, E. C. The Animal Rights/Environmental Ethics Debate. New

York: SUNY Press, 1992.

Regan, T. The Case For Animal Rights. Los Angeles: University of California

Press, 1983.

———, and P. Singer. Animal Rights and Human Obligations. 2nd ed.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989.

Singer, P. Animal Liberation. New York: Avon Books, 1975.

Zimmerman, M. E., et al, eds. Environmental Philosophy: From Animal

Rights To Radical Ecology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1993.

Animal waste

Animal wastes are commonly considered the excreted mate-

rials from live animals. However, under certain production

conditions, the waste may also include straw, hay, wood

shavings, or other sources of organic debris. It has been

estimated that there may be as much as 2 billion tons of

animal wastes produced in the United States annually. Appli-

cation of excreta to

soil

brings benefits such as improved

soil

tilth

, increased water-holding capacity, and some plant

nutrients. Concentrated forms of excreta or high application

rates to soils without proper management may lead to high

salt concentrations in the soil and cause serious on- or off-

site

pollution

Animal Welfare Institute

Founded in 1951, the Animal Welfare Institute (AWI) is

a non-profit organization that works to educate the public

and to secure needed action to protect animals. AWI is a

highly respected, influential, and effective group that works

with Congress, the public, the news media, government

officials, and the

conservation

community on animal pro-

tection programs and projects. Its major goals include im-

proving the treatment of laboratory animals and a reduction

in their use; eliminating cruel methods of

trapping wildlife

;

saving

species

from

extinction

; preventing painful experi-

ments on animals in schools and encouraging humane sci-

ence teaching; improving shipping conditions for animals

in transit; banning the importation of

parrots

and other

exotic wild birds for the pet industry; and improving the

conditions under which farm animals are kept, confined,

transported, and slaughtered.

In 1971 AWI launched the

Save the Whales

Cam-

paign to help protect

whales

. The organization provides

speakers and experts for conferences and meetings around

the world, including Congressional hearings and interna-

tional treaty and commission meetings. Each year, the insti-

tute awards its prestigious

Albert Schweitzer

Medal to an

individual for outstanding achievement in the advancement

of animal welfare. Its publications include The AWI Quar-

terly; books such as Animals and Their Legal Rights; Facts

about Furs; and The Endangered Species Handbook; booklets,

brochures, and other educational materials, which are dis-

tributed to schools, teachers, scientists, government officials,

humane societies, libraries, and veterinarians.

AWI works closely with its associate organization,

The Society for Animal Protective Legislation (SAPL), a

lobbying group based in Washington, D.C. Founded in

1955, SAPL devotes its efforts to supporting legislation to

protect animals, often mobilizing its 14,000 “correspon-

dents” in letter-writing campaigns to members of Congress.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Antarctic Treaty (1961)

SAPL has been responsible for the passage of more animal

protection laws than any other organization in the country,

and perhaps the world, and it has been instrumental in

securing the enactment of 14 federal laws.

Major federal legislation which SAPL has promoted

includes the first federal Humane Slaughter Act in 1958

and its strengthening in 1978; the 1959 Wild Horse Act;

the 1966 Laboratory Animal Welfare Act and its strengthen-

ing in 1970, 1976, 1985, and 1990; the 1969

Endangered

Species Act

and its strengthening in 1973; a 1970 measure

banning the crippling or “soring” of Tennessee Walking

Horses; measures passed in 1971 prohibiting

hunting

from

aircraft, protecting wild horses, and resolutions calling for

a moratorium on commercial

whaling

; the 1972 Marine

Mammal Protection Act; negotiation of the 1973 Conven-

tion on International Trade in

Endangered Species

Fauna

and

Flora

(CITES); the 1979 Packwood-Magnuson

Amendment protecting whales and other ocean creatures;

the 1981 strengthening of the Lacey Act to restrict the

importation of illegal wildlife; the 1990 Pet Theft Act; and,

in 1992, The Wild Bird Conservation Act, protecting parrots

and other exotic wild birds; the International Dolphin Con-

servation Act, restricting the killing of

dolphins

by tuna

fishermen; and the Driftnet Fishery Conservation Act, pro-

tecting whales, sea birds, and other ocean life from being

caught and killed in huge, 30-mi-long (48-km-long) nets.

Major goals of SAPL include enacting legislation to

end the use of cruel steel-jaw leg-hold traps and to secure

proper enforcement, funding, administration, and reauthori-

zation of existing animal protection laws. Both AWI and

SAPL have long been headed by their chief volunteer, Chris-

tine Stevens, a prominent Washington, D.C. humanitarian

and community leader.

[Lewis G. Regenstein]

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

Animal Welfare Institute, P.O. Box 3650, Washington, D.C USA 20007

(202) 337-2332, Email: awi@awionline.org, <http://www.awionline.org>

Society for Animal Protective Legislation, P.O. Box 3719, Washington,

D.C. USA 20007 (202) 337-2334, Fax: (202) 338-9478, Email:

sapl@saplonline.org, <http://www.saplonline.org>

Anion

see

Ion

Antarctic Treaty (1961)

The Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1961, established an interna-

tional administrative system for the continent. The impetus

for the treaty was the International Geophysical Year, 1957–

1958, which had brought scientists from many nations to-

gether to study

Antarctica

. The political situation in Antarc-

tica was complex at the time, with seven nations having made

sometimes overlapping territorial claims to the continent:

Argentina,

Australia

, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway,

and the United Kingdom. Several other nations, most nota-

bly the former USSR and the United States, had been active

in Antarctic exploration and research and were concerned

with how the continent would be administered.

Negotiations on the treaty began in June 1958 with

Belgium, Japan, and South Africa joining the original nine

countries. The treaty was signed in December 1959 and

took effect in June 1961. It begins by “recognizing that it

is in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue

forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes.” The

key to the treaty was the nations’ agreement to disagree on

territorial claims. Signatories of the treaty are not required

to renounce existing claims, nations without claims shall

have an equal voice as those with claims, and no new claims

or claim enlargements can take place while the treaty is in

force. This agreement defused the most controversial and

complex issue regarding Antarctica, and in an unorthodox

way. Among the other major provisions of the treaty are:

the continent will be demilitarized; nuclear explosions and

the storage of nuclear wastes are prohibited; the right of

unilateral inspection of all facilities on the continent to en-

sure that the provisions of the treaty are being honored is

guaranteed; and scientific research can continue throughout

the continent.

The treaty runs indefinitely and can be amended, but

only by the unanimous consent of the signatory nations.

Provisions were also included for other nations to become

parties to the treaty. These additional nations can either be

“acceding parties,” which do not conduct significant research

activities but agree to abide by the terms of the treaty, or

“consultative parties,” which have acceded to the treaty and

undertake substantial scientific research on the continent.

Twelve nations have joined the original 12 in becoming

consultative parties: Brazil, China, Finland, Germany, India,

Italy, Peru, Poland, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, and Ur-

uguay.

Under the auspices of the treaty, the Convention on

the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources was

adopted in 1982. This regulatory regime is an effort to

protect the Antarctic marine

ecosystem

from severe damage

due to

overfishing

. Following this convention, negotiations

began on an agreement for the management of Antarctic

mineral resources. The Convention on the Regulation of

Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities was concluded in June

1988, but in 1989 Australia and France rejected the conven-

tion, urging that Antarctica be declared an international

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Antarctica Project

wilderness

closed to mineral development. In 1991 the

Protocol on Environmental Protection, which included a

50-year ban on mining, was drafted. At first the United

States refused to endorse this protocol, but it eventually

joined the other treaty parties in signing the new convention

in October 1991.

[Christopher McGrory Klyza]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Shapley, D. The Seventh Continent: Antarctica in a Resource Age. Baltimore:

Johns Hopkins University Press for Resources for the Future, 1985.

Antarctica

The earth’s fifth largest continent, centered asymmetrically

around the South Pole. Ninety-eight percent of this land

mass, which covers approximately 5.4 million mi

(13.8 mil-

lion km

), is covered by snow and ice sheets to an average

depth of 1.25 mi (2 km). This continent receives very little

precipitation, less than 5 in (12 cm) annually, and the world’s

coldest temperature was recorded here, at -128°F (-89°C).

Exposed shorelines and inland mountain tops support life

only in the form of

lichens

, two

species

of flowering plants,

and several insect species. In sharp contrast, the ocean sur-

rounding the Antarctic continent is one of the world’s richest

marine habitats. Cold water rich in oxygen and nutrients

supports teeming populations of

phytoplankton

and

shrimp-like Antarctica

krill

, the food source for the region’s

legendary numbers of

whales

seals

, penguins, and fish.

During the nineteenth and early twentieth century, whalers

and sealers severely depleted Antarctica’s marine mammal

populations. In recent decades the whale and seal populations

have begun to recover, but interest has grown in new re-

sources, especially oil, minerals, fish, and tourism.

The Antarctic’s functional limit is a band of turbulent

ocean currents and high winds that circle the continent at

about 60 degrees south latitude. This ring is known as the

Antarctic convergence zone. Ocean turbulence in this zone

creates a barrier marked by sharp differences in

salinity

and

water temperature. Antarctic marine habitats, including the

limit of krill populations, are bounded by the convergence.

Since 1961 the

Antarctic Treaty

has formed a frame-

work for international cooperation and compromise in the

use of Antarctica and its resources. The treaty reserves the

Antarctic continent for peaceful scientific research and bans

all military activities. Nuclear explosions and

radioactive

waste

are also banned, and the treaty neither recognizes

nor establishes territorial claims in Antarctica. However,

neither does the treaty deny pre-1961 claims, of which seven

exist. Furthermore, some signatories to the treaty, including

the United States, reserve the right to make claims at a later

date. At present the United States has no territorial claims,

but it does have several permanent stations, including one

at the South Pole. Questions of territorial control could

become significant if oil and mineral resources were to be-

come economically recoverable. The primary resources cur-

rently exploited are fin fish and krill fisheries. Interest in oil

and mineral resources has risen in recent decades, most

notably during the 1973 “oil crisis.” The expense and diffi-

culty of extraction and

transportation

has so far made

exploitation uneconomical, however.

Human activity has brought an array of environmental

dangers to Antarctica. Oil and mineral extraction could seri-

ously threaten marine

habitat

and onshore penguin and

seal breeding grounds. A growing and largely uncontrolled

fishing industry may be depleting both fish and krill popula-

tions in Antarctic waters. The parable of the

Tragedy of

the Commons

seems ominously appropriate to Antarctica

fisheries, which have already nearly eliminated many whale,

seal, and penguin species.

Solid waste

and

oil spills

associ-

ated with research stations and with tourism pose an addi-

tional threat. Although Antarctica remains free of “perma-

nent settlement,” 40 year-round scientific research stations

are maintained on the continent. The population of these

bases numbers nearly 4,000. In 1989 the Antarctic had its

first oil spill when an Argentine supply ship, carrying 81

tourists and 170,000 gal (643,500 l) of diesel fuel, ran

aground. Spilled fuel destroyed a nearby breeding colony of

Adele penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae). With more than 3,000

cruise ships visiting annually, more spills seem inevitable.

Tourists themselves present a further threat to penguins

and seals. Visitors have been accused of disturbing breeding

colonies, thus endangering the survival of young penguins

and seals.

[Mary Ann Cunningham]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Child, J. Antarctica and South American Geopolitics. New York: Praeger, 1988.

Parsons, A. Antarctica: The Next Decade. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1987.

Shapely, D. The Seventh Continent: Antarctica in a Resource Age. Baltimore:

Johns Hopkins University Press for Resources for the Future, 1985.

Suter, K. D. World Law and the Last Wilderness. Sydney: Friends of the

Earth, 1980.

Antarctica Project

The Antarctica Project, founded in 1982, is an organization

designed to protect

Antarctica

and educate the public, gov-

ernment, and international groups about its current and

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Anthrax

future status. The group monitors activities that affect the

Antarctic region, conducts policy research and analysis in

both national and international arenas, and maintains an

impressive library of books, articles, and documents about

Antarctica. It is also a member of the Antarctic and Southern

Ocean Coalition (ASOC), which has 230 member organiza-

tions in 49 countries.

In 1988, ASOC received a limited observer status to

the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine

Living Resources (CCAMLR). So far, the observer status

continues to be renewed, providing ASOC with a way to

monitor CCAMLR and to present proposals. In 1989, the

Antarctica Project served as an expert adviser to the U.S.

Office of Technology Assessment on its study and report

of the Minerals Convention. The group prepared a study

paper outlining the need for a comprehensive environmental

protection convention. Later, a

conservation

strategy on

Antarctica was developed with

IUCN—The World Conser-

vation Union

Besides continuing the work it has already begun, the

Antarctica Project has several goals for the future. One calls

for the designation of Antarctica as a world park. Another

focuses on developing a bilateral plan to pump out the oil

and salvage the Bahia Parasio, a ship which sank in early

1989 near the U.S. Palmer Station. Early estimated salvage

costs ran at $50 million. One of the more recent projects is

the Southern Ocean Fisheries Campaign. This campaign

targets the illegal fishing taking place in the Southern Ocean

which is depleting the Chilean sea bass population. The

catch phrase of this movement is “Take a Pass on Chilean

Sea Bass.”

Three to four times a year, The Antarctica Project

publishes ECO, an international publication which covers

current political topics concerning the

Antarctic Treaty

Sys-

tem (provided free to members). Other publications include

briefing materials, critiques, books, slide shows, videos, and

posters for educational and advocacy purposes.

[Cathy M. Falk]

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

The Antarctica Project, 1630 Connecticut Ave., NW, 3rd Floor,

Washington, D.C. USA 20009 (202) 234-2480, Email: antarctica@igc.org,

<http://www.asoc.org>

Anthracite coal

see

Coal

Anthrax

Anthrax is a bacterial infection caused by Bacillus anthracis.

It usually affects cloven-hoofed animals, such as cattle, sheep,

and goats, but it can occasionally spread to humans. Anthrax

is almost always fatal in animals, but it can be successfully

treated in humans if antibiotics are given soon after exposure.

In humans, anthrax is usually contracted when spores are

inhaled or come in contact with the skin. It is also possible

for people to become infected by eating the meat of contami-

nated animals. Anthrax, a deadly disease in

nature

, gained

worldwide attention in 2001 after it was used as a

bioterror-

ism

agent in the United States. Until the 2001 attack, only

18 cases of anthrax had been reported in the United States

in the previous 100 years.

Anthrax occurs naturally. The first reports of the dis-

ease date from around 1500

B.C.

, when it is believed to have

been the cause of the fifth Egyptian

plague

described in

the Bible. Robert Koch first identified the anthrax bacterium

in 1876 and Louis Pasteur developed an anthrax vaccine for

sheep and cattle in 1881. Anthrax bacteria are found in

nature in South and Central America, southern and eastern

Europe, Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, and the Middle East.

Anthrax cases in the United States are rare, probably due

to widespread vaccination of animals and the standard proce-

dure of disinfecting animal products such as cowhide and

wool. Reported cases occur most often in Texas, Louisiana,

Mississippi, Oklahoma, and South Dakota.

Anthrax spores can remain dormant (inactive) for years

soil

and on animal hides, wool, hair, and bones. There

are three forms of the disease, each named for its means

of transmission: cutaneous (through the skin), inhalation

(through the lungs), and intestinal (caused by eating anthrax-

contaminated meat). Symptoms appear within several weeks

of exposure and vary depending on how the disease was

contracted.

Cutaneous anthrax is the mildest form of the disease.

Initial symptoms include itchy bumps, similar to insect bites.

Within two days, the bumps become inflamed and a blister

forms. The centers of the blisters are black due to dying

tissue. Other symptoms include shaking, fever, and chills. In

most cases, cutaneous anthrax can be treated with antibiotics

such as penicillin. Intestinal anthrax symptoms include stom-

ach and intestinal inflammation and pain, nausea, vomiting,

loss of appetite, and fever, all becoming progressively more

severe. Once the symptoms worsen, antibiotics are less effec-

tive, and the disease is usually fatal.

Inhalation anthrax is the form of the disease that oc-

curred during the bioterrorism attacks of October and No-

vember 2001 in the eastern United States. Five people died

after being exposed to anthrax through contaminated mail.

At least 17 other people contracted the disease but survived.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Anthropogenic

Anthrax lesion on the shoulder of a patient.

(NMSB/Custom Medical Stock Photo. Reproduced by per-

mission.)

One or more terrorists sent media organizations in Florida

and New York envelopes containing anthrax. Anthrax-con-

taminated letters also were sent to the Washington, D.C.

offices of two senators. Federal agents were still investigating

the incidents as of May 2002 but admitted they had no leads

in the case. Initial symptoms of inhalation anthrax are flu-

like, but breathing becomes progressively more difficult. In-

halation anthrax can be treated successfully if antibiotics are

given before symptoms develop. Once symptoms develop,

the disease is usually fatal.

The only natural outbreak of anthrax among people

in the United States occurred in Manchester, New Hamp-

shire, in 1957. Nine workers in a textile mill that processed

wool and goat hair contracted the disease, five with inhala-

tion anthrax and four with cutaneous anthrax. Four of the

five people with inhalation anthrax died. By coincidence,

workers at the mill were participating in a study of an experi-

mental anthrax vaccine. No workers who had been vacci-

nated contracted the disease.

Following this outbreak, the study was stopped, all

workers at the mill were vaccinated, and vaccination became

a condition of employment. After that, no mill workers

contracted anthrax. The mill closed in 1968. However, in

1966 a man who worked across the street from the mill died

from inhalation anthrax. He is believed to have contracted

it from anthrax spores carried from the mill by the wind. The

United States

Food and Drug Administration

approved the

anthrax vaccine in 1970. It is used primarily for military

personnel and some health care workers. During the 2001

outbreak, thousands of postal workers were offered the vac-

cine after anthrax spores from contaminated letters were

found at several post office buildings.

The largest outbreak worldwide of anthrax in humans

occurred in the former Soviet Union in 1979, when anthrax

spores released from a military laboratory infected 77 people,

69 of whom died. Anthrax is an attractive weapon to bioter-

rorists. It is easy to transport and is highly lethal. The World

Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 110 lb (50 kg)

of anthrax spores released upwind of a large city would kill

tens of thousands of people, with thousands of others ill and

requiring medical treatment.

The Geneva Convention, which established a code of

conduct for war, outlawed the use of anthrax as a weapon

in 1925. However, Japan developed anthrax weapons in the

1930s and used them against civilian populations during

World War II. During the 1980s, Iraq mass produced an-

thrax as a weapon.

[Ken R. Wells]

ESOURCES

OOKS

The Parents’ Committee for Public Awareness. Anthrax: A Practical Guide

for Citizens. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Perspectives Press, 2001.

ERIODICALS

Consumers’ Research Staff. “What You Need to Know About Anthrax.”

Consumers’ Research Magazine (Nov. 2001):10–14.

Belluck, Pam. “Anthrax Outbreak of ’57 Felled a Mill but Yielded Answers.”

The New York Times (Oct. 27, 2001).

Bia, Frank, et al. “Anthrax: What You—And Your Patients—Need To

Know Now.” Consultant (Dec. 2001):1797–1804.

Masibay, Kim Y. “Anthrax: Facts, Not Fear.” Science World (Nov. 26,

2001):4–6.

Spencer, Debbi Ann, et al. “Inhalation Anthrax.” MedSurg Nursing (Dec.

2001):308ndash;313.

RGANIZATIONS

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta,

GA USA 30333 (404)639-3534, Toll Free: (888) 246-2675, Email:

cdcresponse@ashastd.org, >http://www.cdc.gov<

Anthropocentrism

see

Environmental ethics

Anthropogenic

Refers to changes in the natural world due to the activities

of people. Such changes may be positive or negative. For

example, anthropogenic changes in soils can occur due to

plowing, fertilizing, using the

soil

for construction, or long

continued manure additions. When manure is added to soils,

the change is considered beneficial, but when soils are com-

pacted for use as parking lots, the change is considered

negative. Other examples of anthropogenic effects on the

environment

include

oil spills

acid rain

logging

of old-

growth forests, creation of

wetlands

, preservation of

en-

dangered species

, among others.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Antibiotic resistance

Antibiotics are drugs principally derived from naturally oc-

curring

fungi

and

microorganisms

that kill bacteria and

can cure patients with bacterial diseases. Before the advent

of antibiotics in the 1940s, many common diseases were

lethal or incurable. Tuberculosis, pneumonia, scarlet fever,

staph and strep infections, typhoid fever, gonorrhea, and

syphilis were all dreaded diseases until the development of

penicillin and other antibiotics in the middle of the twentieth

century. Yet almost as soon as antibiotics came into common

use, scientists noticed that some strains of disease-causing

bacteria developed

resistance

to the antibiotic used most

often against it. People infected with an antibiotic-resistant

bacteria must be treated with different antibiotics, often

more potent and toxic than the commonly used drug. In

some cases, bacteria may be resistant to several antibiotics.

Tuberculosis, once the leading killer in the United States at

the beginning of the nineteenth century, seemed defeated

with the introduction of streptomycin and PAS in the 1940s

and early 1950s. But tuberculosis resurged in the United

States and worldwide in the 1990s as people came down

with antibiotic-resistant strains of the disease. Bacteria that

cause salmonella, a food-borne illness, have become increas-

ingly resistant to antibiotics by the early twenty-first century,

as have the bacteria that commonly cause early childhood

ear infections. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics contribute

to the rise of resistant strains.

Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics relatively

quickly. Bacteria multiply rapidly, producing a new genera-

tion in as little as a half hour. So evolutionary pressures can

produce bacteria with new characteristics in very little time.

When a person takes an antibiotic, the drug will typically

kill almost all the bacteria it is designed to destroy, plus other

beneficial bacteria. Some small percentage of the disease

bacteria, maybe as little as 1%, may have a natural ability to

resist the antibiotic. So a small number of resistant bacteria

may survive drug treatment. When these resistant bacteria

are all that are left, they are free to multiply, passing the

resistance to their offspring. Physicians warn people to take

the full prescribed course of antibiotics even if symptoms of

the disease disappear in a day or two. This is to limit the

danger of resistant bacteria flourishing. Bacteria can also

develop resistance by contact with other

species

of bacteria

that are resistant. Neighboring bacteria can pass genetic

material back and forth by swapping bits of DNA called

plasmids. If bacteria that normally live on the skin and

bacteria that live in the intestine should come into contact

with each other, they may make a plasmid exchange, and

spread antibiotic resistant qualities. Antibiotic-resistant bac-

teria are often resistant to a whole class of antibiotics, that

is, a group of antibiotics that function in a similar way.

People afflicted with a resistant strain of bacteria must be

treated with a different class of antibiotics.

Antibiotic resistance was evident in the 1940s, though

penicillin had only become available in 1941. By 1946, one

London hospital reported that 14% of patients with staph

infections had penicillin-resistant strains, and that number

rose precipitously over the next decade. In 1943 scientists

brought out streptomycin, a new antibiotic that fought tuber-

culosis (penicillin was found not to work against that dis-

ease). But streptomycin-resistant strains of tuberculosis de-

veloped rapidly, and other drugs had to be found. In 1959,

physicians in Japan found a virulent strain of dysentery that

was resistant to four different classes of antibiotic. Some

troubling cases of antibiotic resistance have been isolated

incidents. But by the 1990s it was clear that antibiotic resis-

tance was a widespread and growing problem. A few cases

around the world in 1999 found deadly bacteria resistant to

vancomycin, a powerful antibiotic described as a drug of last

resort because it is only used when all other antibiotics fail.

By this time, scientists in many countries were deeply

alarmed about the growing public health threat of antibiotic

resistance. A study done by the Mayo clinic and reported

in 2001 claimed that deaths from infectious diseases had

risen 58% between 1980 and 1992, a rising toll attributed in

part to antibiotic resistance. The U.S.

Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention

(CDC) claimed in 2001 that anti-

biotic resistance had spread to “virtually all important human

pathogens treatable with antibiotics.”

Antibiotic resistance makes treatment of infected pa-

tients difficult. The sexually transmitted disease gonorrhea

was easily cured with a single dose of penicillin in the middle

of the twentieth century. By the 1970s, penicillin-resistant

strains of the disease had become prevalent in Asia, and

migrated from there to the rest of the world. Penicillin was

no longer used to treat gonorrhea in the United States after

1987. Standard treatment was then a dose of either of two

classes of antibiotics, fluoroquinolones, or cephalosporins.

By the late 1990s, strains of gonorrhea resistant to fluoroqui-

nolones had been detected in Asia. The resistant strains

showed up in California in 2001. The California CDC soon

recommended not using fluoroquinolones to treat gonor-

rhea, fearing that use of these drugs would actually

strengthen the antibiotic resistance. If patients were only

partially cured by fluoroquinolones, yet some infection lin-

gered, they could pass the resistant strain to others. And the

resistance could become stronger as only the most resistant

bacteria survived exposure to the drug. So public health

officials and doctors were left with cephalosporins to treat

gonorrhea, more costly drugs with more risk of side effects.

Overuse of antibiotics contributes to antibiotic resis-

tance. The number of antibiotic prescriptions for children

rose almost 50% in the United States between 1980 and

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Antibiotic resistance

1992. Children and the elderly are the most likely to receive

antibiotic prescriptions. By 1998 the CDC estimated that

approximately half the 100 million prescriptions for antibiot-

ics issued by doctor’s offices in the United States annually

were unnecessary. Antibiotics work only against bacterial

diseases, and are useless against viral infections. Yet physi-

cians frequently prescribe antibiotics for coughs and colds.

An article on the problem in American Family Physician

found that most doctors understood the inappropriateness

of their prescriptions, yet feared that patients were unsatis-

fied with their care unless they received a drug. The CDC

launched various state and national initiatives to educate

both doctors and their patients about overuse of antibiotics.

Other groups took on specific diseases. For example, an

association of pediatricians publicized the danger of over

prescribing for childhood ear infections in 2001. The com-

mon ailment was known to be treatable without antibiotics,

but many doctors continued to give antibiotics anyway. By

2001, almost one-third of children in daycare who had ear

infections had an antibiotic-resistant form, according to a

survey conducted by the National Association of Child Care

Professionals (NACCP). The NACCP hoped to convince

both pediatricians and parents to use antibiotics only when

necessary. The president of the American Medical Associa-

tion spoke out in 2001 about the number of prescriptions

for ciprofloxacin (Cipro) given out in the wake of the mail

attacks of inhalation

anthrax

. Tens of thousands of people

received prescriptions for Cipro in October 2001, putting

them at risk for developing pools of Cipro-resistant bacteria

in their bodies. Most bacteria live in the body without caus-

ing harm, but can make people ill if they build up to certain

levels, or if a person’s immune system is weakened. People

carrying Cipro-resistant bacteria could potentially come

down with a resistant form of pneumonia or some other

bacterial illness later in life.

People are also exposed to antibiotics through meat

and other food. About half the antibiotics used in the United

States go to farm animals, and some are also sprayed on

fruits and vegetables. Some farm animals are given antibiotics

to cure a specific disease. But other antibiotics are given

as preventives, and to promote growth. Animals living in

crowded and dirty conditions are more susceptible to disease,

and the preventive use of antibiotics keeps such animals

healthier than they would otherwise be. The antibiotics pre-

scribed by veterinarians are similar or the same as drugs used

in humans. Farm animals in the United States are routinely

fed penicillin, amoxicillin, tetracycline, ampicillin, erythro-

mycin, and neomycin, among others, and studies have shown

that antibiotic resistance is common in contaminated meat

and eggs. One study conducted by the

Food and Drug

Administration

(FDA) and the University of Maryland and

reported in 2001 found 20% of ground meat samples taken

from several urban supermarkets contained salmonella bacte-

ria. Over 80% of the salmonella bacteria sampled was resis-

tant to at least one antibiotic and over half was resistant to

at least three antibiotics. Salmonella bacteria is killed when

meat is cooked properly, and most cases of salmonella disease

get better without treatment. But for the small percent of

cases of more serious infection, multiple antibiotic resistance

could make treatment very difficult. A food-borne E. coli

bacteria was found in 2001 to be causing urinary tract infec-

tions which were resistant to the standard antibiotic treat-

ment. Twenty percent of the urinary tract infections studied

were resistant to Bactrim, meaning that in most cases physi-

cians would be advised to treat with a stronger antibiotic

with more side effects.

Antibiotics in preventive doses or for growth promo-

tion of farm animals were banned by the

European Union

in 1998. Many groups in the United States concerned with

antibiotic resistance recommend the United States follow

suit. The plan released by the CDC, the Food and Drug

Administration (FDA) and the National Institutes of Health

(NIH) in 2001 to combat antibiotic resistance called for

increased monitoring of antibiotic use in agriculture and in

human health. The plan also called for public education on

the risks of overuse and improper use of antibiotics, and for

more research in combating drug-resistant diseases. The

FDA continued to investigate links between agricultural use

of antibiotics and human health.

[Angela Woodward]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Moore, Peter. Killer Germs. London: Carlton Books, 2001.

ERIODICALS

“Antibiotic Resistance: Appropriate Use, Not “Magic Bullet” Best Bet to

Ward Off Dangers.” TB and Outbreaks Week (June 6, 2000): 24–25.

Barlam, Tamar. “Antibiotics in Jeopardy.” Nutrition Action Health Letter29,

no. 2 (March 2002): 9.

Brody, Jane E. “Studies Find Resistant Bacteria in Meats.” New York Times

(October 18, 2001): A12.

Colgan, Richard, and Powers, John H. “Appropriate Antimicrobial Pre-

scribing: Approaches that Limit Antibiotic Resistance.” American Family

Physician64, no. 6 (September 15, 2001): 999.

Cunha, Burke A. “Effective Antibiotic-Resistance Control Strategies.” Lan-

cet 357, no. 9265 (April 28, 2001): 1307.

“Drug Resistance: Anthrax-Fighting Drugs Apt to Spur Resistance to

Common Bugs.” Medical Letter on the CDC and FDA(November 25, 2001 -

December 2, 2001): 18.

“Higher Rates of Repeat Infections Occur Among Children in Group

Child Care.” Medical Letter on the CDC and FDA(December 30, 2001 -

January 6, 2002): 15.

Kirby, David. “New Resistant Gonorrhea Migrating to Mainland U.S.”

New York Times (May 7, 2002): D5.

Monroe, Judy. “Antibiotics Vs. the Superbugs.” Current Health 2 28, no.

2 (October 2001): 24.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Aquaculture

RGANIZATIONS

Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics, 75 Kneeland Street, Boston,

MA USA 02111 (617) 636-0966, Fax: (617) 636-3999, , <http://

www.healthsci.tufts.edu/apua>

Ants

see

Fire ants

ANWR

see

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

Apis mellifera scutellata

see

Africanized bees

AQCR

see

Air Quality Control Region

Aquaculture

Aquaculture is the husbandry or rearing of aquatic organisms

under controlled or semi-controlled conditions. Stated an-

other way, it is the art of cultivating natural plants and

animals in water for human consumption or use. It can be

considered aquatic agriculture, or as some people wish to

call it, underwater agriculture. It is sometimes incorrectly

termed aquiculture. Aquaculture involves production in both

fresh and salt water.

Mariculture

is aquaculture in saline

(

brackish

and marine) water.

Hydroponics

is the raising

of aquatic plants in water. Organisms that are grown in

aquaculture include fish, shellfish (crustaceans such as craw-

fish and shrimp, and mollusks such as oysters and clams),

algae, and aquatic plants. More people are eating seafood

for their added health benefit. Not only can these organisms

be raised for human consumption, but they can also be reared

for the lucrative baitfish, health food, aquarium, and home

garden-pond industries.

Aquaculture dates back more than 3,500 years ago

when carp were spawned and reared in China. There have

also been records of aquaculture practices being performed

in Egypt and Japan nearly that long ago. Mariculture is

thought to have been brought to Hawaii about 1,500 years

ago. Modern aquaculture finds its roots in the 1960s in the

culturing of catfish in the United States and

salmon

Europe.

There are two general methods used in aquaculture,

extensive and intensive. Extensive aquaculture involves the

production of low densities of organisms. For example, fin-

gerling fish can be raised in ponds where they feed on the

natural foods such as

phytoplankton

and

zooplankton

and the matured fish are harvested at the end of the growing

season. These ponds can also be fertilized to enhance the

food chain, thus increasing fish or shellfish production. Typi-

cally, several hundred to several thousand pounds of fish are

raised per acre annually. Intensive practices utilize much

higher densities of organisms. This requires better

water

quality

, which necessitates circulation, oxygenation, added

commercial foods, and biological

filters

(with bacteria) to

remove toxic wastes. These systems can produce more than

one million lb of fish per acre (45,000/ha). Intensive aquacul-

ture often utilizes tanks to grow the fish or shellfish, either

indoor or outdoor. The water can be recirculated as long as

toxic wastes such as ammonia are removed. Some processors

run the

effluent

from the fish tanks through greenhouses

with plants raised hydroponically to remove these

chemi-

cals

. In this way, added revenue is gained. Some aquaculture

operations raise only one type of organism (called

monocul-

ture

) while others grow several

species

together (termed

polyculture). An example of polyculture would be growing

tilapia and catfish together.

About 86% of the world’s aquaculture production

(about 22 million tons in 1993) comes from Asia. China is

the leading producer nation, with most of their production

coming from carp, and secondarily shrimp. India is the sec-

ond largest producer nation, followed by Japan, Taiwan, and

the Philippines. For example, 1991 shrimp production in

China reached nearly 250,000 tons. (Note: One English ton

equals approximately one metric ton, so they can be thought

of as equivalents). Only Taiwan exceeded this with 350,000

tons of shrimp produced. Ecuador produced 100,000 tons.

In contrast, total shrimp production for the United States

was only 1,600 tons. Salmon is another major fish produced

by aquaculture, with most coming from Norway. Nearly

300,000 tons were produced in 1990. Great Britain, Canada,

Chile, and Iceland are also major producers of farm-raised

salmon. Other important aquaculture species and some of

the countries where they are raised include: tilapia (Carib-

bean countries, Egypt, India, Israel, the Philippines); milk-

fish (the Philippines); Nile perch (Egypt); sea bass and sea

bream (Egypt, Israel); mullet (Egypt, India, Israel); dolphin

fish (also known as mahi-mahi; Egypt); grass and silver

carp (Israel); halibut and other flatfishes (France, Norway);

prawns (Caribbean countries, Israel, the Philippines); mus-

sels and oysters (the Philippines); crabs (India); seaweeds

(India, Japan); Spirulina (a blue-green algae; India); and

many other examples.

Although people in the United States consume less

fish and shellfish than people in other parts of the world,

each year we spend billions of dollars importing edible fish.

Total production from aquaculture in the United States in

1991 was about 540,000 tons, which earned about $750

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Aquaculture

million. This comprises only about 3% of the world’s total

aquaculture production. Domestically, catfish is our major

aquaculture species ($200 million per year in 1991). Trout

(primarily raised in Idaho) is the number two species raised in

aquaculture and accounts for a $55 million per year industry.

Shrimp, hybrid-striped bass, and tilapia are other species

commonly raised in the United States. Of the 16,000 tons

of crawfish (more appropriately called crayfish) collected in

1990 in the United States, about 60% came from aquaculture

ponds.

In 1986 the U.S. Congress placed aquaculture under

the jurisdiction of the

U.S. Department of Agriculture

ap-

propriated $3 million to establish four regional aquaculture

centers. These centers are located at the University of Wash-

ington, Southeastern Massachusetts University, Mississippi

State University, and a Center for Tropical and Subtropical

Aquaculture jointly administered by the University of Hawaii

and the Oceanic Institute. The following year Congress

created a fifth center at Michigan State University. The

mandate for these centers was, and still is, to promote aqua-

culture in their region and to solve some of the problems

facing this industry. More recent legislation has created

mariculture research centers under the Sea Grant Program

within the Department of Commerce.

Aquaculture is an appealing industry because it can

help supplement what is caught in natural fisheries and

what is produced through agriculture. This has tremendous

implications in terms of the growing future dilemma with

human over-population, decreased fisheries captured from

the oceans, and stabilized agriculture production. Aquacul-

ture is a growing industry in the world, which not only

translates into more food, but also more revenue and jobs.

This fulfills the old Chinese proverb that you can give a

person a fish and feed them for a day, or you can teach

a person to fish (or do aquaculture) and feed them for a

lifetime.

It is particularly important to look at aquaculture de-

velopment in third-world countries where protein sources

are scarce. Since many of these countries lie in equatorial

regions, tilapia (also called St. Peter’s fish because they are

the likely fish caught by the disciples in the Sea of Galilee) are

one of the best prospects to grow because of their tolerance of

high temperatures and poor water quality (i.e., high ammo-

nia levels). They are also omnivorous filter feeders and thrive

on blue-green algae. One alternative to the

deforestation

of our precious rain forests might be to encourage indigenous

people to construct earthen ponds and raise tilapia on the

fringes of the forests, thus producing not only a protein

source, but also a

cash crop

. An advantage of aquaculture

over agriculture is that fish can be grown in ponds overlying

soil

that may be toxic to plants (for example, with high

concentrations of sulphur,

aluminum

, or salt). In addition,

aquaculture species can often be held longer if there is a glut

on the market, thus allowing more flexible selling times.

Despite these positive attributes, there are serious problems

involved in aquaculture. These include release of waste into

the water (adversely affecting water quality); spread of dis-

eases and

parasites

through concentrated growing condi-

tions; disfavorable taste through chemicals like geosmin in

the water being taken up by the fish (termed “off-flavor” in

catfish); release of hybrid strains into the natural population

which can result in mixed genetics with natural populations;

obstruction of the aesthetics along coastlines; and overpro-

duction, which can result in depressed market prices. For

example, both the catfish and salmon industries experienced

a tremendous drop in their market prices due to overproduc-

tion in 1990 and 1991.

Aquaculture seems to have a bright future as long as

we address some of the above-mentioned problems. One

example of an enterprising solution to one of these problems

is that of releasing wrasse (marine parasite-feeding fish) into

aquaculture tanks and cages to remove fish lice from salmon.

This not only solves the problem of parasites, but also elimi-

nates the need to add chemicals to the water that kill para-

sites, stress the fish, and pollute the

environment

. The same

pitfalls that have plagued agriculture must be avoided in

aquaculture. A key concern is that of sustainability—concern

for the culture environment and non-crop organisms in mea-

suring the success of the aquaculture industry (discussed in

the June 1996 issue of World Aquaculture). There is no need

for agriculture farmers to feel threatened by aquaculture; on

the contrary, it seems that these two areas can actually be

brought together, particularly with small local farms in

underdeveloped countries supplementing their terrestrial

crops with aquatic production. This has already been done

quite well in Norway, which has more than 700 fish farms

in a country with only 4.2 million people. Aquaculture is

evolving from an art, with trial-and-error learning, to more

of a science with ongoing research. Countries such as Japan,

the United States, Israel, and Norway are developing new

technology to bring this field to higher levels. Recent predic-

tions suggest that aquaculture will be able to meet at least

40% of the global demand for fish and shellfish over the next

15 years if current trends prevail. Government, academic

institutions, and industry must work hand-in-hand to see

that these predictions come to fruition with minimal envi-

ronmental damage.

[John Korstad]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Bardach, J. “Aquaculture.” BioScience 37 (1987): 318–19.

Hopkins, J. S. “Aquaculture Sustainability: Avoiding the Pitfalls of the

Green Revolution.” World Aquaculture 27 (1996): 13–5.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Aquarium trade

Lee, J. S., and M. E. Newman. Aquaculture Today—An Introduction. Illinois:

Interstate Publishers, 1992.

Parker, N. C. “History, Status, and Future of Aquaculture in the United

States.” CRC Critical Reviews in Aquatic Science. 1 (1989): 97–109.

Stickney, R. R. Principles of Aquaculture. New York: Wiley, 1994.

World Aquaculture Society. “World Aquaculture—A Special Section on

Aquaculture Research and Development Around the World.” World Aqua-

culture 27 (1996): 7–30.

Aquarium trade

International trade in live fish and other marine

species

for

international aquarium hobby market. Most fish, corals, and

other marine aquarium species traded internationally are

collected live from tropical and subtropical coral reefs, espe-

cially in the Philippines, Indonesia, and other Asian coun-

tries. Nearly half the world aquarium fish market is in the

United States. Although the capture and marketing of live

reef species provides a significant income source in remote

communities, international trade has alarmed conservation-

ists and environmentalists because of harmful collecting

methods. A majority of live tropical fish are captured with

sodium cyanide (NaCN), a highly toxic and inexpensive

powdered poison. Divers use squirt bottles containing a cya-

nide solution or drop cyanide tablets into reef crevices where

fish hide. The poison stuns the fish, making them easy to

capture, and the fish usually recover after a few minutes.

Fish are transferred to holding tanks on ships and then

transported to international wholesalers. From 70–90% of

fish captured with cyanide die later, however, due to damage

to the liver, stomach, and other tissues. Another problem

common in salt water aquaria is “sudden death syndrome,”

when fish inexplicably die soon after they are introduced to

the aquarium. Some researchers attribute the syndrome to

cyanide, which is stored in tissues during transport. Fish are

often not fed during storage, but when they begin to eat in

their new aquarium, or if they undergo even mild shock,

the cyanide is released into the blood stream and kills the

fish. Although solid figures are impossible to establish, esti-

mates of the proportion of tropical live fish caught with

cyanide are 75% or higher worldwide, and 90% in some

countries.

The reefs where fish are captured fare as badly as the

fish: one study found all cyanide-treated corals dead within

three months after treatment. Coral reefs also suffer physical

damage as divers break off chunks of coral to retrieve stunned

fish. Despite harm to reefs and high fish

mortality

rates,

cyanide is considered the most cost effective method to

capture popular species such as angel fish and trigger fish.

Peter Rubec, a researcher with the International Ma-

rinelife Alliance, reports that an exporter operating from

Manila initiated the export of marine fish from the Philip-

pines in 1957. With almost 2,200 fish species, the Philip-

pines has the highest reef fish diversity in the world, includ-

ing 200 species that are commonly exported for the marine

pet fish industry. In 1986 Filipino reefs provided as much

as 80% of the world’s tropical marine fish, a number that

fell only to 70% by 1997. From 1970–1980 exports rose

from 1,863,000 lb (845,000 kg) of live fish packed in water

to 4.41 million lb (2 million kg) worth $2 billion dollars.

Since then export numbers have fallen in the Philippines,

as stocks have thinned and the trade has diversified to other

countries, but in 1986 the country’s marine tropical fish

trade was worth $10 million dollars. Worldwide the value

of aquarium fish was $100 million dollars, plus corals and

other supplies.

Cyanide fishing was first introduced in the Philippines

in about 1962. The technique has since spread to Indonesia,

New Guinea, and other regions where live fish are caught.

Cyanide has since been banned in the Philippines and Indo-

nesia, but enforcement is difficult because fishing vessels are

dispersed, often in hard-to-reach sections of remote islands.

Despite legal bans, an estimated 375,000 lb (170,000 kg) of

cyanide is still used each year in the Philippines. Cyanide

fishing boats have even exploited established marine pre-

serves and parks, such as Indonesia’s Take Bone Atoll. Fur-

thermore, as enforcement mechanisms develop, cyanide fish-

ing can quickly spread to other countries, where laws are

still weak or lacking.

The greatest problems of the live reef fish trade result

from its mobility. The frontier of cyanide fishing has moved

steadily through Southeast Asia to tropical Pacific islands

and even across the Indian Ocean to the Seychelles and

Tanzania, as fertile reefs have disappeared and as govern-

ments caught on to their fishing practices and began to

impose laws restricting the use of cyanide and explosives.

Since the market is international and lucrative, it does not

matter where the fish are caught. Furthermore, fish exporters

succeed best if they continually explore new, unexploited

reefs where more unusual and exotic fish can be found. The

migratory nature of the industry makes it easy for fishing

vessels to move on as soon as a country begins to enact or

enforce limits on their activities.

Starting in 1984 international

conservation

groups

have worked to introduce net fishing as a less harmful fishing

alternative that still allows divers to retain their income from

live fish. To catch fish with nets, divers may use a stick to

drive fish from their hiding places in the reef and then trap

the fish with a fine mesh net. Reports indicate that long-

term survival rates of net-caught fish may be as high as 90%,

compared to as little as 10% among cyanide-caught fish. In

Hawaii and

Australia

, where legal controls are more effec-

tive than in Southeast Asia, nets are used routinely. Although

the aquarium industry has provided little aid in the effort

to increase net-fishing, local communities in the Philippines