Deal W.E. Handbook To Life In Medieval And Early Modern Japan

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LANDSCAPE AND

ENVIRONMENT

Japan is an archipelago in the Paciﬁc Ocean along

the eastern coast of the Asian mainland. The archi-

pelago includes four main islands—Honshu, Hok-

kaido, Kyushu, and Shikoku in descending order of

size—and more than 1,000 other islands of varying

sizes. The total area of Japan is approximately

145,885 square miles, slightly smaller than the state

of California. The four main islands are some 1,200

miles in length (northeast to southwest) with a width

of about 200 miles at the widest point. These four

islands comprise approximately 95 percent of Japan’s

entire landmass.

The Japanese islands are situated at the intersec-

tion of four tectonic plates. The collision of these

plates is the source of the many earthquakes, volca-

noes, hot springs, and other geological phenomena

that have occurred frequently throughout Japanese

history. As a result of this geologic instability, moun-

tains cover some 80 percent of the Japanese land-

scape. Historically, this mountainous land surface

resulted in the division of Japan into regions set into

plains between mountain ranges. Of particular im-

portance during the medieval and early modern

periods are the Kanto Plain—the site of the cities of

Edo and Kamakura—and the Kansai Plain in which

Kyoto and Osaka are situated.

Oceans, Bays, Lakes,

and Rivers

Japan is completely surrounded by water. Thus, rel-

ative to other East Asian nations, Japan exists in geo-

graphical isolation, a feature that has allowed it to

draw upon Chinese, Korean, and other continental

inﬂuences when it chose to do so, and to isolate itself

from outside inﬂuences at other times. The Sea of

Japan separates Japan from China (500 miles at the

closest point) and Korea (120 miles at the closest

point). The Seto Inland Sea (Seto Naikai), a part of

the Paciﬁc Ocean, creates sea boundaries between

Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. Some 1,000 islands

populate the Seto Inland Sea. This sea and its islands

were signiﬁcant to trade and transportation during

the medieval and early modern periods. Other ocean

boundaries between the four main islands include

several straits (kaikyo), such as the Kammon Strait

(also called Shimonoseki Strait; located between

Honshu and Kyushu), the Tsugaru Strait (situated

between Honshu and Hokkaido), the Naruto Strait

(at the entry to Osaka Bay), and the Tsushima Strait

(between Iki Island and Tsushima Island in the

Paciﬁc Ocean).

During the medieval and early modern periods,

several bays (wan) served as calm waters for ports

that conducted both domestic and foreign trade.

Among the more signiﬁcant in this time period were

Osaka Bay, Edo Bay (present-day Tokyo Bay), Ise

Bay, and Uraga Bay.

There are few lakes on the Japanese islands,

though Lake Biwa (Biwako) in central Honshu, Ja-

pan’s largest freshwater lake, is a notable exception.

Lake Biwa (area: 259 square miles; circumference:

172 miles) was ﬁshed and used for transportation in

the medieval and early modern periods. Lake Biwa

also secured a place in the Japanese imagination for

its Eight Views of Omi. This refers to eight loca-

tions around Lake Biwa in Omi Province (present-

day Shiga Prefecture) that were praised for their

beauty from at least the beginning of the 16th cen-

tury and were a subject for Edo-period artists.

The Japanese landscape is marked by many

rivers, but most of them are rather short. Only two

rivers, the Shinanogawa and the Tonegawa on Hon-

shu, exceed a length of 200 miles. Historically, rivers

were used mostly for crop irrigation rather than ship

navigation. Flooding also impacted medieval and

early modern life. Some important rivers include:

Ara River (Arakawa; length: 105 miles) Originates

in the Kanto Mountain, ends in Edo Bay (present-

day Tokyo Bay)

Chikugo River (Chikugogawa; length: 89 miles)

Longest river in Kyushu

Edo River (Edogawa; length: 37 miles) Flows into

Edo Bay (Tokyo Bay)

H ANDBOOK TO L IFE IN M EDIEVAL AND E ARLY M ODERN J APAN

L AND, ENVIRONMENT, AND P OPULATION

Map 2. Topographic Map of Japan’s Main Islands

Kamo River (Kamogawa; length: 22 miles) Flows

through Kyoto

Katsura River (Katsuragawa; length: 19 miles)

Flows through Kyoto

Kiso River (Kisogawa; length: 141 miles) Honshu;

ﬂows into Ise Bay at Nagoya

Kitakami River (Kitakamigawa; length: 155 miles)

Longest river in the Tohoku region of northern

Honshu

Kuma River (Kumagawa; length: 71 miles) Flows

through Kyushu

Mogami River (Mogamigawa; length: 142 miles)

Flows through the Tohoku region of northern

Honshu

Nagara River (Nagaragawa; length: 87 miles)

Flows through central Honshu and empties into Ise

Bay; famous for cormorant ﬁshing

Oi River (Oigawa; length: 99 miles) Flows through

central Honshu and empties into Suruga Bay

Sagami River (Sagamigawa; length: 68 miles)

Flows through central Honshu and empties into

Sagami Bay

Shinano River (Shinanogawa; length: 228 miles)

Longest river in Japan; ﬂows through central Hon-

shu and empties into the Sea of Japan at Niigata

Sumida River (Sumidagawa; length: 15 miles)

Flows through Edo (Tokyo) as one of the lower

branches of the Arakawa; important in the history of

Edo culture and society

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2.1 Leisure-time boating on the Sumida River in the city of Edo (Illustration Grace Vibbert)

Tama River (Tamagawa; length: 78 miles) Flows

into Edo Bay (Tokyo Bay)

Tenryu River (Tenryugawa; length: 132 miles)

Flows through central Honshu

Tone River (Tonegawa; length: 200 miles) Second-

longest river in Japan; ﬂows through central Honshu

and empties into the Paciﬁc Ocean at Choshi; the

Tonegawa originally emptied into Edo Bay (Tokyo

Bay) but in the Edo period the river’s course was

altered to try to prevent ﬂoods in Edo

Yodo River (Yodogawa; length: 47 miles) Flows

through central Honshu; it originates in Lake Biwa

and empties into Osaka Bay; at its upper reaches the

river is called the Setagawa and as it flows near

Kyoto it is called the Ujigawa; the Yodogawa was

important in the medieval and early modern periods

as a transportation route between Kyoto and Osaka.

Mountains, Volcanoes,

and Earthquakes

One of the most prominent attributes of the Japan-

ese landscape is the presence of mountains and vol-

canoes. Mountainous, wooded terrain comprises

two-thirds of the Japanese islands, leaving only

about 15 percent of arable land available. The main

island of Honshu is split by mountains that run

down its spine, dividing the island into a side that

faces the Paciﬁc Ocean and a side that faces the Sea

of Japan.

The majority of mountains and volcanoes are a

few hundred to a couple of thousand feet in altitude,

but a few ranges reach 5,000–10,000 feet high. The

highest mountain in Japan is Mount Fuji (Fujisan),

an active volcano extending more than 10,000 feet in

height. Its oft-depicted conical shape represents a

common volcanic form seen throughout Japan. Tra-

ditionally, mountains, such as Mount Fuji, have been

considered the abode of the gods and as such were

considered sacred during the time period studied in

this volume.

Mountains also created natural boundaries be-

tween different parts of Japan that had strategic

implications during the medieval and early modern

periods. They impeded trade and communication,

and made it difﬁcult to ﬁght wars or to uniformly

exert political inﬂuence and administer the law.

Because Japan is situated in one of the most geo-

logically active regions of the world, volcanoes and

earthquakes are frequent both historically and today.

Both volcanoes and earthquakes have had a signiﬁ-

cant impact on the lives of the Japanese people

throughout Japan’s history. Destructive volcanic

eruptions and devastating earthquakes are recorded

in the medieval and early modern periods with some

regularity. Earthquakes occurring under the ocean

can spawn large tidal waves known as tsunami. His-

tory records the destructive power of such waves

when they reach the shore. Volcanoes and earth-

quakes occurred with sufﬁcient frequency and inten-

sity that this topographic feature of the Japanese

islands served as a frequent reminder to medieval

and early modern Japanese of the Buddhist notion of

impermanence, the idea of the fundamental instabil-

ity and ephemerality of the world. Positive effects of

this geologic phenomenon include hot springs,

which have traditionally been used both for relax-

ation and for medicinal purposes, a fertile land rich

in mineral deposits, and productive soil.

Some important mountains and volcanoes

include:

Mount Asama (Asamayama; height: 8,425 feet)

Volcano in central Honshu

Mount Aso (Asosan; height: 5,223 feet) Volcano in

Kyushu

Mount Bandai (Bandaisan; height: 5,968 feet)

Volcano in northern Honshu

Mount Dai (Daisen; height: 5,673 feet) Volcano in

western Honshu; home of Daisenji Buddhist temple

Mount Fuji (Fujisan; height: 12,388 feet) The

highest and most famous mountain in Japan; located

in central Honshu; considered particularly sacred

and a symbol of the Japanese nation; subject of liter-

L AND, ENVIRONMENT, AND P OPULATION

ature and art; visible from Edo; still classiﬁed as an

active volcano although it has not erupted since

1707; as a sacred mountain, Fuji was the object of

pilgrimage during the Edo period—as with other

sacred mountains, women were forbidden to climb it

because they were considered impure

Mount Haku (Hakusan; height: 8,865 feet) Vol-

cano in central Honshu; considered particularly

sacred

Mount Hakone (Hakoneyama; height: 4,718 feet)

Volcano in central Honshu

Mount Hiei (Hieizan; height: 2,782 feet) Moun-

tain to the northeast of Kyoto; the important Tendai

Buddhist temple complex of Enryakuji and the Hie

Shrine are located on Hiei

Mount Koya (Koyasan; height: 3.300 feet) Moun-

tain in central Honshu; home to the important Shin-

gon Buddhist temple complex of Kongobuji;

throughout the medieval and early modern periods

women were forbidden to climb the mountain

Mount Shira (Shirayama; height: 8,865 feet)

Alternate name for Hakusan (see above)

Mount Tate (Tateyama; height: 9,892 feet) Moun-

tain in central Honshu; considered one of Japan’s

three most sacred mountains, along with Mount Fuji

and Mount Haku

Mount Unzen (Unzendake; height: 4,459 feet)

Volcano in Kyushu near Nagasaki

Mount Yari (Yarigatake; height: 10,433 feet)

Mountain in central Honshu; part of the Hida

Mountain range

Climate

The overall climate of Japan is marked by diversity

and ﬂuctuation, though it is generally characterized

as temperate to subtropical and experiences four

seasons. Because of the great length of its north/

south land orientation, Japan resides in several cli-

matic zones and experiences a variety of different

weather conditions. Inﬂuencing the climate of Japan

is its location in the monsoon zone of East Asia,

which generates great winds and produces seasonal

shifts. Local variations in climate are the result of

proximity to mountains, oceans, and other geo-

graphic features. The Japanese rainy season pro-

duces an average annual rainfall of 180 inches per

year. Typhoons are a yearly occurrence. Hokkaido,

the northernmost of Japan’s four main islands, has a

climate that is both drier and cooler than the other

three islands.

The winter season is characterized by monsoons

dropping major snowfall on the mountainous

regions of Japan. The spring season brings in

warmer air currents and dry conditions, but this is

soon followed by the rainy season (baiu) in June and

July. The summer season that follows produces hot

and humid weather, especially in the plains areas.

Summer is brought to an end by the yearly typhoons

in August and September, the end of which marks

the start of the autumn season. The fall is also distin-

guished by continued rain, and cooler, breezier

weather, finally ending with the beginning mon-

soons of winter.

Natural Resources

Natural resources in the Japanese islands include its

abundant forests and supply of wood. More than 70

percent of Japan is wooded, and the islands are home

to a variety of tree species throughout its varied

regions. During the Edo period, Japan experienced a

great demand for wood to build the infrastructure of

its newly emerging urban centers, such as Edo and

Osaka.

Mining has been prevalent throughout Japanese

history. In particular, during the 16th to the 18th

centuries, a number of gold and silver mines were

opened, including the famous Sado Island mines.

These mines produced tremendous amounts of gold

and silver, which aided the income of the Tokugawa

shogunate.

H ANDBOOK TO L IFE IN M EDIEVAL AND E ARLY M ODERN J APAN

Flora and Fauna

Japan is home to a rich variety of plant and animal life.

Flora and fauna are used for food, medicine, and other

speciﬁc needs of daily life. Bamboo, for example, is

used both in construction and, as young shoots

(takenoko), for food. Plants and animals also have asso-

ciations with the seasons and other symbolic mean-

ings. Plant and animal motifs are used on traditional

clothing and family crests, and certain plants are used

in Japanese religious and seasonal rituals. For instance,

pine is used at the New Year and symbolizes longevity.

The varied climates of Japan have produced a

diverse array of plant life throughout the archipel-

ago. Different regions are notable for different

botanical characteristics. Overall, it is estimated that

Japan has approximately 5,000–6,000 different plant

species. During the Edo period, ﬂoriculture thrived,

giving rise to the development of numerous new

species of wildﬂowers. Similarly, Japan has a signiﬁ-

cant diversity of animal and sea life. There are more

than 110 different kinds of mammals resident on the

Japanese islands. Besides the ﬁsh and other sea life

found in Japan’s ocean waters, there are various species

of seaweed, some of which are harvested for food.

L AND, ENVIRONMENT, AND P OPULATION

2.2 Example of the use of thatch in roof construction (Photo William E. Deal)

CITY, TOWN, AND

COUNTRYSIDE

The rise of cities and towns in Japan during the

medieval and early modern periods occurred espe-

cially with the development of castle and market

towns, though temple and port towns also played a

role in urban development. This urbanization process

largely took place in the Edo period, although its ori-

gins date back to the medieval period. Exceptions to

this general pattern during the medieval period were

cities such as Kyoto and Kamakura that developed

into ﬂourishing cities due to their position as either

imperial or shogunal capitals.

Castle Towns

Castle towns trace their origin to the Muromachi

period and the construction of wooden defenses typ-

ically located on hills for reasons of protection and

surveillance. These fortifications were the precur-

sors to the castles and castle-building styles that

grew more elaborate during the Warring States

period. As the military and political signiﬁcance of

castles grew, they also became the focal point for

economic activity within their local region. With the

rise of commerce around castles, merchants, arti-

sans, and peasants joined the warrior class in taking

up residence within a castle’s sphere of influence.

Castles became castle towns as a result. By the

Azuchi-Momoyama period (late 16th century), cas-

tle towns became the political and administrative

H ANDBOOK TO L IFE IN M EDIEVAL AND E ARLY M ODERN J APAN

2.3 Black pines at the Ginkakuji in Kyoto (Photo William E. Deal)

hubs of daimyo domains, and it is estimated that in

most domains one-10th of the population resided in

its castle town. Some of them, at least, were to

become Japan’s largest cities, such as Edo and Osaka.

During the 16th century, castle towns (joka

machi) began their transformation into town and city

complexes. This occurred in part because castle

towns served as government administration centers.

Many daimyo and almost all samurai lived within

the castle town complexes. Merchants, traders, arti-

sans, craftspeople, and others were eventually incor-

porated into these towns and cities to provide the

labor and market activity needed to support the

work conducted there and to further build and

maintain the infrastructure. As a result of this

dynamic, castle and market towns came to occupy

the same location.

Market Towns

Market towns (ichiba machi) originated in the

Kamakura period as areas the government autho-

rized to sell produce and other goods on certain days

of the month. As the population density of castle

towns increased, markets assumed locations either

nearby or within castle towns. Some merchants also

became residents of cities while others traveled from

market to market. Historically market towns repre-

sented the conﬂuence of both rural and urban life.

As city and town populations increased, market

shops open on a regular basis came to largely sup-

plant the need for the earlier periodic markets.

Temple/Shrine Towns

Temple and shrine towns (monzen machi) originated

in the vicinity of Buddhist temples and Shinto

shrines, usually along the roads leading to these reli-

gious sites. These towns served the needs of pilgrims

visiting the temples and shrines. Establishments that

developed along these routes provided food and lodg-

ing to pilgrims, and sold amulets and other religious

items. As religious sites grew in size, so did the per-

manent infrastructure needed to support this activity.

Port Towns

Port towns grew up around sea ports that developed

ﬂourishing trading centers in the medieval and early

modern periods. The cities of Anotsu, Bo no Tsu,

Hakata, and Sakai (for details on these cities, see

below) are examples of cities that developed from

trade with the Asian mainland. Even after restric-

tions on foreign trade were enacted by the shogu-

nate in the 16th century, ports engaged in domestic

trade continued to thrive.

Post-Station Towns

Post-station towns (shukuba machi or shukueki) grew

up along the medieval and early modern road sys-

tems that connected cities and towns to each other.

Post stations were sometimes small towns that pro-

vided basic provisions and lodging to travelers.

L AND, ENVIRONMENT, AND P OPULATION

2.4 Dragonﬂy (tombo) on a bamboo fence rail—one of

many kinds of insect life native to Japan

(Photo William

E. Deal)

Other post stations developed into substantial cities,

usually as a result of their location in or near a mar-

ket, or as a result of their location along the intersec-

tion of two or more roads. Post-station towns were

regulated by the government. For additional details

on post-station towns see chapter 11: Travel and

Communication.

Countryside

The historical record concerning rural habitation in

medieval Japan is often lacking in precise informa-

tion. Details emerge more clearly after 1600. In gen-

eral, medieval and early modern rural inhabitants

lived within a village context. The village operated

as a communal support for the overall well-being of

the community. Everyone associated with the village

was dependent on the development of the agricul-

tural community as a whole. Typically, villages pro-

duced rice, grain, and other ﬁeld crops. There were,

of course, signiﬁcant local variations in the way that

rural communities were set up and the degree to

which the terrain—for instance, ﬂat land or hills—

dispersed people or drew them together.

Village settlement began to change with the

advent of large cities—like Edo and Osaka—and the

increasing importance of castle towns as centers of

commercial activity during the early modern period.

The capriciousness of farm life with its uncertain

harvests was sometimes abandoned for the draw of a

town or city and its allure of steadier employment.

Besides farm villages, ﬁshing villages were a feature

of medieval and early modern rural life, and moun-

tain villages developed in the early modern period

around lumber and other products that found ﬂour-

ishing markets in the expanding towns and cities of

the Edo period.

Domains

Domains (han) were territories assigned by the

Tokugawa shogunate and governed by provincial

daimyo. The term han refers to both the land itself

and the provincial governments that the various

domains represented. Domains were provincial cen-

ters for administrative, military, and ﬁnancial gover-

nance that provided both local control and

connections to the shogunate in Edo. The number

of domains ﬂuctuated during the Edo period. Gen-

erally, though, there were about 260 domains in

existence at any given time. The rise and fall of a

particular domain was usually the result of either

internal conﬂict or the intervention of the Tokugawa

government. The shogunate would, for instance, re-

assign domain control when it feared possible

provincial rebellion.

Daimyo domains varied in size, bureaucratic

structures, and the extent of their autonomy from

direct control by the Tokugawa shogunate. Gener-

ally, the greater the distance from Edo, the greater

was the independence. Domains also had different

rice-producing capacities. Depending on size, do-

mains produced anywhere from 10,000 to 1 million

koku (one koku = ﬁve bushels or 180 liters) of rice a

year.

Having been awarded a particular domain, a

daimyo was required to fulﬁll certain obligations to

the shogunate. These responsibilities included the

creation and upkeep of a local army of samurai loyal

to the shogun, and compliance with the system of

sankin kotai, whereby each daimyo was required to

reside every other year in Edo in attendance on the

shogun.

POPULATION

STATISTICS

Total Population

Population expanded throughout Japan’s early mod-

ern period. Such expansion was most notable in the

17th century where the overall population rose from

12 million to 30 million, although these numbers

decreased and eventually leveled off during the 18th

century. The statistics listed below for Japan’s total

population were gathered from population censuses

H ANDBOOK TO L IFE IN M EDIEVAL AND E ARLY M ODERN J APAN

conducted at the order of the shogunate. However,

the accuracy of such statistics varies greatly, as the

surveys often neglected different demographics like

members of the samurai household, children, and

others.

Year Population

1721 26,065,425

1732 26,921,816

1744 26,153,450

1756 26,061,830

1780 26,010,600

1792 24,891,441

1804 25,517,729

1828 27,201,400

1834 27,063,907

1846 26,907,625

Source: Conrad Totman, Early Modern Japan (Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1993): 251.

Urban Population

In 1700, around 5 to 7 percent of the populace re-

sided in larger cities, making Japan one of the most

urbanized countries in the world in this time period.

Between 1550 and 1700 Kyoto was the ﬁrst city to

surpass a population of 100,000 people. By 1700 the

city was estimated to have approximately 350,000

individuals. Osaka had roughly 500,000 people in

the mid 18th century, dropping to 375,000 in 1801

and 317,000 in 1854. While Edo began as a village,

by 1678 it grew to roughly 570,361 inhabitants. This

number increased to about 1.3 million in 1721 and

1.4 million by the start of the 19th century. These

statistics made Edo one of the largest urban centers

in the entire world at the time.

GAZETTEER OF

PLACE-NAMES

Islands

CHIKUBUSHIMA

Chikubushima (area: .05 square miles) is an island

located in Lake Biwa in central Honshu. It is consid-

ered a sacred island and is the site of both the Ho-

gonji temple and the Tsukubusuma Shrine. Hogonji

is also the 30th of the 33 temples that comprise the

L AND, ENVIRONMENT, AND P OPULATION

2.5 Model of a crowded amusement area (sakariba) in the city of Edo (Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibit; Photo William

E. Deal)